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Clean power milestone for India

Non-fossil fuels now account for half of India’s installed energy capacity – years ahead of schedule – but the third-largest greenhouse gas polluter remains deeply reliant on coal for electricity generation. “A landmark in India’s energy transition journey,” Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world’s most populous nation released figures in July. “Five years early,” he added, referring to India’s 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country’s stated goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 per cent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami said the figures – which refer only to potential energy production – tell just part of the story. “Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low,” Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. The challenge becomes even more apparent when examining India’s continued dependence on coal. Far from decreasing its usage, the globe’s second-largest consumer of coal pushed up production of the dirty fossil fuel by five per cent last year, mining one billion tonnes, according to the coal ministry. “Coal remains crucial,” the ministry said. The stance highlights the practical challenges of India’s energy transition.

CNG buses in Delhi to be phased out by 2031:DTC and cluster services to run only electric buses as govt prioritises clean mobility and pollution control

The push towards electrification comes against the backdrop of Delhi’s alarming air pollution levels. Vehicular emissions contribute nearly 40% of PM2.5 pollution during winter months, according to studies by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). In a landmark move towards sustainable urban transport, the Central Government has announced that all CNG buses operating in Delhi under the Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) and the cluster bus service will be phased out in the coming years. By August 2031, the national capital’s bus fleet will be fully electric a shift expected to significantly reduce vehicular pollution in one of the world’s most polluted cities. 2,743 CNG buses to be removed Replying to a question in the Rajya Sabha, Minister of State for Housing and Urban Affairs Tokhan Sahu informed that Delhi currently has 5,691 operational buses, of which 2,743 run on CNG. These include 993 buses owned by DTC and 1,750 operated under the cluster model. The government plans a two-step withdrawal older DTC buses, already past the 10-year mark, will be retired by 2026–27, while the cluster fleet will continue till 2031. “Delhi has communicated that only electric buses are now being added to the fleet,” Sahu said. No new CNG additions in recent years Interestingly, the Centre revealed that in the last five years, no funds have been allocated by either the Union or Delhi government for purchasing new CNG buses. Instead, all investments have been redirected towards scaling up electric mobility. Cluster buses, Sahu added, are being inducted on a Gross Cost Contract (GCC) basis, which allows the government to control costs while ensuring service delivery through private operators. Delhi’s electric fleet present and future At present, Delhi has nearly 1,650 electric buses on the road, making it one of the largest EV bus fleets in India. The Delhi government has projected that this number will cross 8,000 by 2027, with a final target of 11,000 buses by 2031, equally split between DTC and private operators. To support this transition, the city is expanding charging infrastructure across depots and bus terminals. According to the Delhi Transport Department, over 55 charging stations dedicated to electric buses are either operational or under construction. Why this matters: air quality crisis The push towards electrification comes against the backdrop of Delhi’s alarming air pollution levels. Vehicular emissions contribute nearly 40% of PM2.5 pollution during winter months, according to studies by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). Although CNG was introduced in Delhi in 2001 to curb rising smoke from diesel buses, experts note that it is no longer sufficient to meet the city’s climate and health challenges. A 2022 IIT-Kanpur report estimated that switching Delhi’s entire bus fleet to electric could cut CO₂ emissions by more than 4.5 million tonnes annually, while also reducing nitrogen oxides and particulate matter pollutants directly linked to respiratory illnesses. Global comparisons Delhi’s target aligns with global practices in sustainable transport. Cities such as London and Paris plan to go fully electric with their public buses by 2030, while China already operates the world’s largest e-bus fleet, with over 400,000 electric buses in service. Road ahead While the transition is ambitious, challenges remain. Experts stress the need for reliable charging infrastructure, lower battery costs, and consistent financial support. However, with Delhi’s clear roadmap, the capital could soon emerge as a model for other Indian cities aiming to clean up their transport systems. By August 2031, the familiar green-and-white CNG buses will be history, replaced by a new fleet of zero-emission electric buses a milestone in Delhi’s journey towards a cleaner and healthier future.

India achieves 50% renewable energy capacity, but coal still powers the nation

"Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low, " said Avantika Goswami from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), highlighting the gap between installed capacity and power actually delivered to the grid. In his Independence Day address, Prime Minister Narendra Modi hailed a significant achievement in India’s energy transition journey: non-fossil fuel sources now account for 50 percent of the country’s installed energy capacity—five years ahead of its 2030 target under the Paris Agreement. However, despite this progress, India’s energy reality remains heavily tied to coal. The announcement marks a pivotal moment for the world’s most populous nation, which remains the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases. "A landmark in India's energy transition journey, " said Renewable Energy Minister Pralhad Joshi, following the July release of new energy capacity figures. “Five years early, ” he added, referring to the country’s early fulfilment of a key climate commitment, and signalling progress towards India’s broader goal of achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. Installed capacity vs actual generation While the 50 percent figure is a noteworthy milestone, experts caution that the headline number does not tell the full story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low, " said Avantika Goswami from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), highlighting the gap between installed capacity and power actually delivered to the grid.

India celebrates clean energy milestone but coal still king

"A landmark in India's energy transition journey," Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world's most populous nation released figures in July. "Five years early," he added, referring to India's 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country's stated goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 percent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures -- which refer only to potential energy production -- tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).

India celebrates clean energy milestone but coal still king

Non-fossil fuels now account for half of India's installed energy capacity -- years ahead of schedule -- but the third-largest greenhouse gas polluter remains deeply reliant on coal for electricity generation. "A landmark in India's energy transition journey," Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world's most populous nation released figures in July. "Five years early," he added, referring to India's 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country's stated goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 percent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures -- which refer only to potential energy production -- tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. - Coal paradox - The challenge becomes even more apparent when examining India's continued dependence on coal. Far from decreasing its usage, the globe's second-largest consumer of coal pushed up production of the dirty fossil fuel by five percent last year, mining one billion tonnes, according to the coal ministry. "Coal remains crucial," the ministry said. The stance highlights the practical challenges of India's energy transition. Coal is needed to fulfil power demands while storage capacity lags behind the surge in renewable sources of power. "The coal sector remains a crucial contributor to India's energy mix, powering over 74 percent of the country's electricity and sustaining key industries like steel and cement," the coal ministry said, celebrating what it dubbed "India's coal boom". This reliance places India in a challenging position globally. The country ranks behind only China and the United States for carbon emissions overall. But analysts point out that in a country of 1.4 billion people, per capita emissions are only one-third of the global average, according to official figures. "Looking at India's per capita emissions, the effort it is making, India is doing pretty well," said activist Harjeet Singh, head of the Satat Sampada Climate Foundation. India has set itself the daunting challenge of reducing emissions by 45 percent by 2030. At the same time, electricity needs are expected to more than double by 2047, according to the country's Center for Science and Environment. Supplying some of that demand "is likely to be met by the addition of renewables", Goswami said. - 'Waste that energy' - Half of India's 484.8 GW installed capacity is from non-fossil fuel sources. The majority comes from solar, totalling 119 GW -- the third-largest level globally. India is building one of the world's largest solar and wind energy farms, spread over a desert the size of Singapore. It is followed by hydro and wind, and also nuclear power -- which makes up less than two percent of the total mix. But solar and wind create steady power only when the conditions are right, and India's storage capacity is a meagre 505 MWh -- far lower than it can generate. The storage bottleneck was not lost on the renewable energy minister. Speaking at the inauguration of a battery storage systems plant in June, Joshi said India's renewable energy potential was "growing fast" and "adding 25–30 GW every year". He added: "But without storage, we will either waste that energy or fall back on coal when renewables dip." Building storage based on batteries requires rare earth metals, with rival and neighbour China controlling 70 percent of the world's supplies. "We still remain dependent on China," said Harjeet Singh, the climate activist. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi was in New Delhi for talks on Tuesday, with the supply of rare earth metals on the agenda. One solution India is considering is pump-hydro energy storage projects. When wind and solar plants produce excess energy, water is pumped into high reservoirs. That stored energy can then be released to generate power when demand surges. But Goswami believes the transition to cleaner power requires a multi-pronged approach. The transition to cleaner power must come from "emission intensity reduction" of often inefficient coal plants, combined with better integrated renewable energy in the grid that "will actually make the shift happen".

Experts call for changes in NCAP 2.0: Focus on finer pollutants, rural areas, and accountability

It urged the government to take into account absolute reduction in PM 2.5 concentration, along with PM10, and link budgetary allocations directly to sectoral and department-wise pollutant depreciation at city and state levels for more accountability. Last year, a Centre for Science and Environment analysis also found that dust mitigation was cornering 64 per cent of NCAP funds. A white paper put together by 58 organisations and air quality experts has urged the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to make the upcoming National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) 2.0 wider in scope, sharpen focus on PM 2.5 pollution, and make it more efficient and accountable on outcomes. It has also made a slew of recommendations to the ministry on strengthening air quality monitoring, covering a larger area to reduce air pollution, and improving performance evaluation. The signatories included environmental groups, public health advocates, experts from Indian Institute of Technology, researchers and civil society organisations. The NCAP was launched in 2019 to improve air quality in 131 cities across 24 states, which were chosen for sustained poor air quality. These cities have to cut air pollution levels by 40 percent by 2025-26, with 2019-20 as the base year. Of 131 cities, 82 are those that do not conform to national ambient air quality standards and 49 are cities with over a million people. ince NCAP is funded by multiple sources, including the 15th Finance Commission, this is the last year in the present commission period. The white paper said that air pollution was not confined by administrative boundaries, and thus NCAP 2.0 must extend beyond the 131 cities to include peri-urban and rural regions. Multiple studies have shown transboundary impacts of particulate matter pollution. “Our analysis shows that most NCAP cities still breach national air quality standards, and rural India remains largely invisible in monitoring systems. The next phase must close these gaps by mapping pollution across urban, rural, and interconnected regions, and by tying public funding to verified reductions in emissions sector by sector,” said Nandikesh Sivalingam, Director and Co-founder, Centre for Research on Clean Air and Energy, an independent research organisation. One of the key recommendations to the environment ministry was to revamp the performance-linked grant framework to move beyond outcome-only indicators such as PM 10 reduction or ‘number of good AQI days’. These metrics have proven to be inadequate, the white paper said. It urged the government to take into account absolute reduction in PM 2.5 concentration, along with PM10, and link budgetary allocations directly to sectoral and department-wise pollutant depreciation at city and state levels for more accountability. Last year, a Centre for Science and Environment analysis also found that dust mitigation was cornering 64 per cent of NCAP funds. From funding to emission reduction targets The Centre has released Rs 1,615.48 crore to 82 cities between 2019-20 and 2024-25 as per official data and an amount of Rs 801 crore has been sanctioned for financial year 2024-25. These funds are being released in tranches of 25 per cent each to states. Spending from the funds allocated for 2024-25 was delayed as the ‘control of pollution’ scheme was approved late, the ministry had informed a House panel earlier this year. However, the ministry will carry forward the unspent funds from 2024-25 to prevent any surrender of funds.

India Achieves 50% Non-Fossil Fuel Capacity, Faces Coal Reliance Challenge

Climate expert Avantika Goswami of the Centre for Science and Environment noted that renewable energy generation is still low. Nearly three-quarters of India’s electricity comes from coal-fired power plants, which are highly polluting. India has reached a major milestone in its energy sector, with non-fossil fuels now accounting for half of the country’s installed power capacity. The achievement came five years ahead of the original 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and Renewable Energy Minister Pralhad Joshi described it as 'a landmark in India’s energy transition journey'. He said it is a key step towards India’s broader goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. While the 50 percent mark is significant, experts warn that it only reflects installed capacity the potential to generate electricity rather than actual production. Climate expert Avantika Goswami of the Centre for Science and Environment noted that renewable energy generation is still low. Nearly three-quarters of India’s electricity comes from coal-fired power plants, which are highly polluting. India’s reliance on coal has not decreased. The country, the second-largest consumer of coal in the world, increased production by five percent last year, mining one billion tonnes. The coal ministry described this as part of 'India’s coal boom', noting that coal is essential for meeting energy demands and supporting industries such as steel and cement. Coal still supplies over 74 percent of the nation’s electricity, highlighting the challenge of transitioning to cleaner energy while meeting growing demand. Globally, India is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases after China and the United States. However, per capita emissions remain low, at about one-third of the global average, given its population of 1.4 billion. Climate activist Harjeet Singh of the Satat Sampada Climate Foundation said that considering India’s size and development needs, it is making notable efforts. The country has pledged to cut emissions by 45 percent by 2030, even as electricity demand is expected to more than double by 2047. Meeting this growing demand while reducing emissions will require expanding renewable power and improving storage systems. India’s total installed power capacity is 484.8 gigawatts, with half coming from non-fossil fuel sources. Solar energy leads with 119 gigawatts, making India the third-largest solar producer in the world. Massive solar and wind farms are under development, including one in a desert area the size of Singapore. Hydropower, wind, and nuclear energy make up the remaining share, with nuclear contributing less than two percent. Renewable energy is intermittent, generating power only when the sun shines or the wind blows. India currently has just 505 megawatt-hours of storage capacity, far below what is needed to use renewable power efficiently. Minister Joshi highlighted the issue during the launch of a battery storage plant in June, warning that without storage, India risks either wasting renewable energy or reverting to coal during shortages. Battery storage requires rare earth metals, largely controlled by China, which supplies about 70 percent of global demand. This dependency was reportedly discussed during Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi’s visit to New Delhi. India is also exploring pump-hydro storage projects, where excess renewable energy pumps water into reservoirs that can later generate electricity during peak demand. Also Read: India Poised to be the Next 'Global Production Hub' for Wind Energy Experts emphasize that a successful energy transition requires multiple approaches. Goswami said India must reduce emissions from inefficient coal plants, better integrate renewable sources into the grid, and develop reliable storage systems. These steps are necessary to reduce dependence on coal while meeting rising electricity needs. Reaching 50 percent non-fossil fuel capacity ahead of schedule is a significant achievement and demonstrates India’s commitment to renewable energy. Yet coal’s continued dominance in actual electricity generation shows the scale of the challenge ahead. With electricity demand expected to double over the next two decades, India will need to balance growth, clean energy, and coal reliance carefully. Storage technology, resource diversification, and coal efficiency improvements will play a key role in shaping the country’s energy future.

India celebrates energy milestone but coal still king

Avantika Goswami says the figures — which refer only to potential energy production — tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. Non-fossil fuels now account for half of India's installed energy capacity — years ahead of schedule — but the third-largest greenhouse gas polluter remains deeply reliant on coal for electricity generation. "A landmark in India's energy transition journey," Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world's most populous nation released figures in July. "Five years early," he added, referring to India's 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country's stated goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 per cent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures — which refer only to potential energy production — tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. The challenge becomes even more apparent when examining India's continued dependence on coal. Far from decreasing its usage, the globe's second-largest consumer of coal pushed up production of the dirty fossil fuel by five percent last year, mining one billion tonnes, according to the coal ministry. "Coal remains crucial," the ministry said. The stance highlights the practical challenges of India's energy transition. Coal is needed to fulfil power demands while storage capacity lags behind the surge in renewable sources of power. "The coal sector remains a crucial contributor to India's energy mix, powering over 74 per cent of the country's electricity and sustaining key industries like steel and cement," the coal ministry said, celebrating what it dubbed "India's coal boom". This reliance places India in a challenging position globally. The country ranks behind only China and the United States for carbon emissions overall. But analysts point out that in a country of 1.4 billion people, per capita emissions are only one-third of the global average, according to official figures. "Looking at India's per capita emissions, the effort it is making, India is doing pretty well," said activist Harjeet Singh, head of the Satat Sampada Climate Foundation. India has set itself the daunting challenge of reducing emissions by 45 percent by 2030. At the same time, electricity needs are expected to more than double by 2047, according to the country's Center for Science and Environment. Supplying some of that demand "is likely to be met by the addition of renewables", Goswami said. Half of India's 484.8 GW installed capacity is from non-fossil fuel sources. The majority comes from solar, totalling 119 GW — the third-largest level globally. India is building one of the world's largest solar and wind energy farms, spread over a desert the size of Singapore. It is followed by hydro and wind, and also nuclear power — which makes up less than two percent of the total mix. But solar and wind create steady power only when the conditions are right, and India's storage capacity is a meagre 505 MWh — far lower than it can generate. The storage bottleneck was not lost on the renewable energy minister. Speaking at the inauguration of a battery storage systems plant in June, Joshi said India's renewable energy potential was "growing fast" and "adding 25-30 GW every year". He added: "But without storage, we will either waste that energy or fall back on coal when renewables dip." Building storage based on batteries requires rare earth metals, with rival and neighbour China controlling 70 percent of the world's supplies. "We still remain dependent on China," said Harjeet Singh, the climate activist. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi was in New Delhi for talks on Tuesday, with the supply of rare earth metals on the agenda. One solution India is considering is pump-hydro energy storage projects. When wind and solar plants produce excess energy, water is pumped into high reservoirs. That stored energy can then be released to generate power when demand surges. But Goswami believes the transition to cleaner power requires a multi-pronged approach. The transition to cleaner power must come from "emission intensity reduction" of often inefficient coal plants, combined with better integrated renewable energy in the grid that "will actually make the shift happen".

India celebrates clean energy milestone but coal still king

Non-fossil fuels now account for half of India's installed energy capacity — years ahead of schedule — but the third-largest greenhouse gas polluter remains deeply reliant on coal for electricity generation. "A landmark in India's energy transition journey," Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world's most populous nation released figures in July. "Five years early," he added, referring to India's 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country's stated goal of reaching Net-Zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 per cent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures, which refer only to potential energy production, tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami said from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. The challenge becomes even more apparent when examining India's continued dependence on coal. Far from decreasing its usage, the globe's second-largest consumer of coal pushed up production of the dirty fossil fuel by five per cent last year, mining one billion tonnes, according to the coal ministry. "Coal remains crucial," the ministry said. The stance highlights the practical challenges of India's energy transition. Coal is needed to fulfil power demands while storage capacity lags behind the surge in renewable sources of power.

Ecostani: Himalayas need uniform scientific norms for sustainable development

From 2013 to 2022, the Himalayan region experienced 44% of all the disasters in the country, according to a Centre for Science and Environment study. The region suffered 192 floods, landslides, and thunderstorms. The report cautioned that cloudbursts in 2022 and 2023 were a precursor to more such disasters. The cloudburst intensity in the Himalayas, especially in the north-western parts, appears to have increased in recent decades, causing widespread destruction and loss of lives and property. Unplanned and unscientific development in the most vulnerable Himalayan regions has massively contributed to this. There is no holistic developmental approach. State governments have adopted a fragmented approach, with planning based on local political pressures and haphazard bureaucratic decision-making. Science has rarely played a role in defining the developmental paradigm of the Himalayan states. Geological or environmental impact studies are not typically required for approval of most road construction projects. In cases where they are, as in the Char Dham road construction project, the Central government divided the projects into components to avoid the mandatory environmental impact assessment. The fallout is clear in repeated landslides, flash floods, and deforestation along the highway. Dharali in Uttarakhand’s Uttarkashi district, which suffered a glacial lake burst-induced flash flood this month, is also on the Char Dham highway route. The state governments have failed to control the unplanned development along the now expanded highways. Hotels, resorts, and homestays have mushroomed across the Himalayan belt to cater to the ever-increasing tourist inflow. There are no norms on what sort of buildings should come up in the ecologically sensitive Himalayan belt outside the municipal limits. The use of heavy earth-moving machinery has become rampant for road widening and the construction of buildings. Floodplain management is almost non-existent in the Himalayan region. In both Dharali and Chisoti, the scene of the cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir, buildings had come up in the floodplains. The swollen rivers flooded the floodplains amid heavy rainfall. Dams have also accentuated siltation in the Himalayan rivers. In Chisoti, a pilgrim camp was built by flattening a floodplain. No lessons were learnt from the tragedy that struck when a cloudburst hit a pilgrim camp built on the dried part of a riverine for the Amarnath Yatra in 2022. There are multiple instances of flash floods causing havoc in the floodplains across the Himalayan region. There have hardly been any studies to identify the vulnerable or no-go areas for any developmental activities in the region. Efforts to identify such areas may face resistance from local populations, who believe that the demarcation of no-go areas could hamper their economic activity. Those who may support the demarcation would be in a small minority, as political parties accentuate the fear of loss among locals for their vested interests. A Union science and technology department vulnerability study of the Himalayas in 2018-19 found that most of the districts in the region are highly vulnerable to natural disasters. The vulnerability is not only because of climate change but also due to population pressure. From 2013 to 2022, the Himalayan region experienced 44% of all the disasters in the country, according to a Centre for Science and Environment study. The region suffered 192 floods, landslides, and thunderstorms. The report cautioned that cloudbursts in 2022 and 2023 were a precursor to more such disasters.

India celebrates clean energy milestone but coal still king

But while the 50 percent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures -- which refer only to potential energy production -- tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). Non-fossil fuels now account for half of India's installed energy capacity -- years ahead of schedule -- but the third-largest greenhouse gas polluter remains deeply reliant on coal for electricity generation. "A landmark in India's energy transition journey," Minister of Renewable Energy Pralhad Joshi proclaimed after the world's most populous nation released figures in July. "Five years early," he added, referring to India's 2030 target under the Paris Agreement, and marking a step to the country's stated goal of reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. But while the 50 percent milestone is significant, climate expert Avantika Goswami says the figures -- which refer only to potential energy production -- tell just part of the story. "Overall, actual generation from renewable sources is still quite low," Goswami told AFP from the New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The reason is stark: nearly three-quarters of electricity continues to come from heavily polluting coal-burning power plants. - Coal paradox - The challenge becomes even more apparent when examining India's continued dependence on coal. Far from decreasing its usage, the globe's second-largest consumer of coal pushed up production of the dirty fossil fuel by five percent last year, mining one billion tonnes, according to the coal ministry. "Coal remains crucial," the ministry said. The stance highlights the practical challenges of India's energy transition. Coal is needed to fulfil power demands while storage capacity lags behind the surge in renewable sources of power. "The coal sector remains a crucial contributor to India's energy mix, powering over 74 percent of the country's electricity and sustaining key industries like steel and cement," the coal ministry said, celebrating what it dubbed "India's coal boom". This reliance places India in a challenging position globally. The country ranks behind only China and the United States for carbon emissions overall. But analysts point out that in a country of 1.4 billion people, per capita emissions are only one-third of the global average, according to official figures. "Looking at India's per capita emissions, the effort it is making, India is doing pretty well," said activist Harjeet Singh, head of the Satat Sampada Climate Foundation. India has set itself the daunting challenge of reducing emissions by 45 percent by 2030. At the same time, electricity needs are expected to more than double by 2047, according to the country's Center for Science and Environment. Supplying some of that demand "is likely to be met by the addition of renewables", Goswami said. - 'Waste that energy' - Half of India's 484.8 GW installed capacity is from non-fossil fuel sources. The majority comes from solar, totalling 119 GW -- the third-largest level globally. India is building one of the world's largest solar and wind energy farms, spread over a desert the size of Singapore. It is followed by hydro and wind, and also nuclear power -- which makes up less than two percent of the total mix. But solar and wind create steady power only when the conditions are right, and India's storage capacity is a meagre 505 MWh -- far lower than it can generate. The storage bottleneck was not lost on the renewable energy minister. Speaking at the inauguration of a battery storage systems plant in June, Joshi said India's renewable energy potential was "growing fast" and "adding 25–30 GW every year". He added: "But without storage, we will either waste that energy or fall back on coal when renewables dip." Building storage based on batteries requires rare earth metals, with rival and neighbour China controlling 70 percent of the world's supplies. "We still remain dependent on China," said Harjeet Singh, the climate activist. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi was in New Delhi for talks on Tuesday, with the supply of rare earth metals on the agenda. One solution India is considering is pump-hydro energy storage projects. When wind and solar plants produce excess energy, water is pumped into high reservoirs. That stored energy can then be released to generate power when demand surges. But Goswami believes the transition to cleaner power requires a multi-pronged approach. The transition to cleaner power must come from "emission intensity reduction" of often inefficient coal plants, combined with better integrated renewable energy in the grid that "will actually make the shift happen".

Nabha Power ' s Rajpura plant named India' s top performer for emission intensity

Nabha Power Limited's Rajpura thermal power plant has been named the country's best-performing supercritical coal-based thermal power plant for emission intensity. A report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) evaluated all such plants in India and identified the Rajpura plant, a subsidiary of Larsen & Toubro, as a top performer in its category. The plant achieved an emission factor of 0.84 tonne/MWh, which is better than the national average, highlighting its efforts in clean energy transition.

Harnessing Biomass: CBG sector gains momentum but challenges remain

India’s compressed biogas (CBG) sector is gaining traction, backed by abundant biomass availability, supportive policy interventions, the need for sustainable waste management and a growing emphasis on domestic energy security. The sector is seen as a critical enabler of crude oil import reduction, soil health restoration, mitigation of pollution caused by biomass burning and advancement of India’s energy self-reliance goals. India has a vast and diverse biomass base that can support a distributed and robust CBG production model. According to the Centre for Science and Environment, India’s feedstock availability comprises 190 million tonnes (mt) of animal and poultry waste, 150 mt of agricultural residue, 62 mt of municipal solid waste (MSW), 50 mt of biomass from sewage treatment plants and 20 mt of press mud. This biomass potential can support an estimated CBG production capacity of 62 mmt, with animal and poultry waste alone accounting for 41 per cent and surplus agri-residues for 32 per cent. Another key consideration for increasing CBG production is the need to reduce the country’s import bill. India’s policy ambition of increasing the share of natural gas in the energy mix to 15 per cent by 2030 can inadvertently increase the import bill. As per the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, in 2024-25, production stood at around 27,000 kilo tonnes (kt), while imports slightly exceeded it at approximately 28,000 kt, indicating a 51 per cent import dependence. As per EAC International Consulting, India’s natural gas demand is projected to rise to 155 mt by fiscal year 2030, and domestic production is not expected to match this pace, leading to a widening supply-demand gap. This rising import reliance exposes the country to global price volatility and geopolitical risks, thus making an even stronger case for increased CBG production. SATAT and other policy initiatives Policy support has been central to the CBG sector’s recent growth. The Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) scheme remains a key policy incentive for the sector. The broader initiative, Galvanising Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan (GOBARdhan), a part of the Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen), also aims to promote CBG projects. Meanwhile, the CBG-CGD Synchronisation initiative, valid till 2033, aims to integrate CBG into the city gas distribution (CGD) network, facilitating its blending with piped natural gas (PNG) for domestic use and with compressed natural gas for transportation. The CBG pricing and transportation charges under these guidelines were revised in May 2025 to 85 per cent of the average CNG retail selling price, up from 80 per cent. Furthermore, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has issued guidelines for the development of pipeline infrastructure for injection of CBG into the CGD network. The allotted budget for this initiative is Rs 9.945 billion for the period 2024-25 to 2025-26. The Direct Pipeline Infrastructure scheme provides central financial assistance (CFA) of up to Rs 287.5 million per project for a maximum 75 km long pipeline (steel or medium-density polyethylene). A new transportation fee structure for CBG supplied via cascade systems has also been introduced – Rs 1.50 per kg for distances of 50-75 km and Rs 2.50 per kg for over 75 km; no fee is applicable within 50 km. Furthermore, the updated CBG price has been fixed at Rs 1,478 per mmbtu (excluding GST), applicable from June 1, 2025 to October 31, 2025. The compressed biogas obligation (CBO) is another positive policy initiative, aimed at creating assured offtake and improved demand. The CBO has been optional until 2024-25, but is mandatory from 2025-26. For fiscal years 2026, 2027 and 2028, the CBO has been set at 1 per cent, 3 per cent and 4 per cent of the overall consumption of CNG or PNG respectively. The CBO will increase to 5 per cent from 2028-29. The Biomass Aggregation Machinery (BAM) scheme has also been launched, with an outlay of Rs 5.64 billion for the period 2023-24 to 2026-27, targeting one of the biggest challenges in the CBG value chain – feedstock availability. In July 2025, the government revised the CFA disbursement process for CBG projects to support the purchase of BAM. As per the updated guidelines, CBG plants with a minimum capacity of 2 tpd that use over 50 per cent biomass as feedstock are eligible to receive CFA of Rs 9 million. To qualify for this subsidy, projects must use at least 50 per cent or 3,000 mt of biomass annually and reach 25 per cent completion (50 per cent for fund release). Furthermore, projects using less than 50 per cent biomass but consuming more than 3,000 mt of biomass annually can still receive support – Rs 2.9 million per 3,000 mt of agricultural residue used. The financial aid is capped at 50 per cent of the biomass machinery’s procurement cost or Rs 2.9 million per project, whichever is lower, and is disbursed in proportion to the amount of biomass collected. Moreover, under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy’s National Bioenergy Programme, CFA is offered for various components relating to power generation, biogas/bio-CNG generation and briquette/pellet manufacturing. Overall, targeted policy measures are being introduced for the entire value chain, from feedstock aggregation and briquette manufacturing to CBG production, blending and transport. CBG project uptake gains traction The uptake of CBG projects has shown positive momentum in recent years, even though the overall progress is short of the ambitious targets. As per the SATAT portal, 108 CBG plants have been commissioned, with 1,094 active letters of intent (LoIs) issued as of July 2025. This is far lower than the initiative’s initial aim of setting up 5,000 CBG plants by 2023-24. Still, the CBG distribution infrastructure has slowly improved, as per recent data shared by several oil marketing com-panies (OMCs). CBG is now available across 64 geographical areas through the CGD network, as well as 350 retail outlets. Meanwhile, the GOBARdhan portal indicates a wider pipeline of projects across the country. As of July 15, 2025, 1,083 projects have been registered on the portal, although a large implementation gap remains: 690 are yet to begin construction, 236 are under construction and only 147 are currently operational. The sector has witnessed a sharp rise in CBG plant numbers, from just three in 2019-20 to 100 by 2024-25. CBG sales grew from negligible levels to 42.8 thousand metric tonnes (tmt) in 2024-25 alone – over half of the total 79.2 tmt sold between September 2019 and March 2025. This surge reflects growing market readi­ness, especially among CGD operators and industrial consumers. Early data for 2025-26 indicates that the momentum has been maintained, with 13,379 tonnes of CBG already sold. In terms of the project pipeline, Uttar Pradesh leads with 55 projects, followed by Maharashtra (27), Gujarat (23) and Madhya Pradesh (20). Uttar Pradesh tops the chart in terms of operational capacity too, with 32 functional plants, trailed by Gujarat (20) and Haryana (17). Significantly, these three leading states have implemented state-level bioenergy policies. More states, such as Punjab and Madhya Pradesh, are expected to follow suit. Sector concerns and recommendations CBG project costs remain high; viability improves with scale and policy support According to discussions with CBG project developers, a 1 tpd CBG output project costs Rs 75 million-Rs 80 million for paddy straw-based plants. Thus, a typical 15 tpd plant will have a capex of Rs 1,125 million-Rs 1,200 million. Developers caution against misleading lower quotes for some projects, in the range of Rs 30 million-Rs 50 million/tpd, which could lead to dysfunctional or substandard plants. According to developers, CBG plants become operationally and financially viable at a minimum capacity of 15 tpd of gas output, with the optimal size being 20 tpd or more. At this scale, the project is able to take advantage of economies of scale. Smaller plants, particularly those in the sub-10 tpd range, are considered largely non-viable unless they are subsidised heavily. These smaller plants struggle with operations and maintenance inefficiencies, underutilised resources, and higher per-unit capex and opex, often leading to poor financial performance. To improve cost viability, developers have suggested that for the first 1,000 CBG plants, the government can fix a guaranteed gas price of Rs 100 per kg for 10 years, like the early feed-in tariffs in the solar and wind power sectors. This, coupled with policy stability, can help de-risk early investments and attract mainstream financial institutions. Another critical recommendation from developers is the introduction of green certificates to unlock another revenue stream and reduce dependence on the monetisation of CBG and manure. Feedstock quality drives project returns, but logistics and regional disparities persist Feedstock has emerged as a crucial determinant of the viability of CBG projects. Paddy straw has become the preferred feedstock for several developers due to its availability in key agrarian states and its chemical characteristics. It enables better gas yields and produces no liquid digestate, thus avoiding the complex handling and disposal requirements seen in press mud or MSW-based plants. Additionally, paddy straw allows for the production of useful by-products such as briquettes and pellets, which can help meet biomass co-firing obligations in thermal power plants. However, feedstock aggregation and supply chain management remain relatively weak in states outside of Punjab and Haryana. In other states, developers face fragmented supply chains, price volatility and logistical bottlenecks. For instance, the price of paddy straw, inclusive of storage and transport, ranges from Rs 2,800 per tonne in Punjab to Rs 3,600 per tonne in Chhattisgarh, highlighting regional disparities. Often, prices increase when the farmers realise there is a huge demand from CBG developers. To address the challenge of aggregating seasonal biomass, some developers have taken up the role of biomass logistics providers. With investments in fleets of high-end balers and other equipment, they are not only supporting their own projects, but also offering machinery rental models for farmers and project developers. Recent policy initiatives attempt to mitigate monetisation and pricing woes A key challenge in the CBG sector lies in the monetisation of CBG and its by-products. CBG currently fetches Rs 74-Rs 81 per kg under the SATAT and CGD synchronisation mechanisms, which is roughly 85 per cent of the prevailing CNG retail price. Developers have pointed out that this pricing structure needs a rework, as it undervalues green gas compared to fossil-based CNG. Several developers argue that CBG, which actively displaces emissions and manages waste, deserves a ­premium, not a discount. Without premium pricing, there is a risk of CBG plants struggling to recover their capital investments from gas sales alone. Additionally, industrial offtake is limited, as most industries benchmark CBG against PNG or LPG, and are unwilling to pay a green premium in the absence of a regulatory mandate or carbon credit mechanism. While several developers have begun monetising fermented organic manure (FOM) and liquid FOM, uptake remains inconsistent due to seasonal demand, transportation challenges and nutrient content constraints. The recent amend-ment to the Fertiliser Control Order, introducing a new category of organic enhancers and removing rigid nutrient norms, has been welcomed, especially for paddy-based CBG plants that inherently have low nitrogen output. Additionally, the provision of market development assistance under the Department of Fertilizers has improved the financial outlook for FOM producers, especially in bulk-sale models. That said, drying, granulation and packaging still involve significant costs, limiting profitability unless mechanised at scale. Need for direct injection into pipelines Another major point of concern for developers is the lack of grid access and uniform offtake infrastructure. For CBG plants larger than 10 tpd, cascading cylinders and transportation of gas to retail outlets are logistically unviable. In such cases, direct injection into CGD pipelines or structured offtake agreements with OMCs is essential. Yet, developers report that retail OMC outlets in rural areas typically have low CBG sales volumes (500-800 kg per day), constraining offtake. Without pipeline access or proximity to large gas consumers, even technically efficient plants operate well below capacity. Financier concerns Financiers face a complex risk landscape when evaluating CBG projects. A primary concern is the frequent mismatch between projected and actual project timelines, often extending beyond two years. Feedstock volatility has emerged as the most disruptive financial risk. Prices have risen far beyond initial assumptions, with no reliable price controls or long-term procurement mechanisms. This, coupled with inconsistent plant utilisation and unviable by-product monetisation, has eroded expected cash flows and weakened debt service coverage ratios. The lack of cost standardisation and technology performance variability across regions are further complicating the financing scenario. The same plant size may have vastly different costs and outputs depending on feedstock and location, making due diligence more complex. Collateral demands, especially for first-time developers, remain high. While risk mitigation tools such as guarantees and concessional lending are emerging, they are not yet widely accessible. As a result, financiers now demand location-specific appraisals and stronger promoter credentials before lending. Conclusion Net, net, while CBG project uptake has been sluggish vis-à-vis the targets, policymakers have attempted to resolve stakeholder concerns. Developers, too, are learning from experience. They are gradually finding the right mix of fac-tors that can make a CBG project financially viable – the correct feedstock for a particular region, how to efficiently manage the supply chain, which mature technology to invest in, the right project scale and ways to realise more revenue through the sale of by-products. The sector has been on a long learning curve; now, it seems set to leverage these lessons for larger overall gains. Sakshi Bansal and Sarthak Takyar

Why Gautam Adani is a Factor in India-US Ties

On September 14, 2012, the Minister of State of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Jayanthi Natarajan constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Sunita Narain, the director of the think-tank Centre for Science and Environment, for an inspection of Mundra port. It reached the same conclusions as its predecessors. Gautam Adani was not at all an important businessman before Narendra Modi helped him to grow in Gujarat as chief minister of the state. Adani was born in 1962 in Ratan Pol in the old city of Ahmedabad, his parents having migrated from north Gujarat. At the age of 18, he dropped out of Gujarat University and moved to Bombay, served a stint as a diamond sorter at Mahindra Bros. and then became a diamond trader. He moved to Ahmedabad in 1981 to help his brother, Mahasukh, who was starting a plastic-film manufacturing business. This company was heavily dependent on supplies of PVC. The sole producer of PVC in India at that time was IPCL, which used to supply two tonnes per month to the Adani brothers. But their rapidly growing business needed over 20 tonnes per month. Therefore, Adani began importing plastic granules through the Kandla port. The Adani group then diversified. In 1988, Gautam Adani set up a commodities trading venture called Adani Exports. In the next four years, his import orders grew from 100 metric tonnes (MT) orders to 40,000 MT. In 1991-92, Adani and agribusiness group Cargill were given 3,000 acres of coastal land in Kutch by the Chimanbhai Patel government for salt production. The project fell through after protests by George Fernandes and others, and Cargill pulled out. Adani held on to his land and began thinking of converting Mundra into a big port. In the framework of the nascent liberalisation, the Gujarat Maritime Board decided to allot ports to private companies in a joint venture with the state – an initial list of 10 ports was created, which included Mundra, which was 14m deep (deeper than Kandla at 12m) and allowed it to berth larger ships of 200,000 MT and above. In 1993, the company was incorporated into a limited company with two backers, Adani himself and Rajesh S. Adani, his younger brother. In 1997, Adani Exports Ltd. entered into a joint venture with the Gujarat government to build a mega port at Mundra. Around that time the Adani group established a base in Dubai, where two of the five Adani brothers were primarily in charge of the supply chain of Adani Exports. In 1999, Adani ventured into coal trading for the first time, with a shipment landing at Mundra. In 2000, Adani let P&O Australia, one of the world’s largest port operators, set up a container terminal in Mundra. There is no evidence that Gautam Adani and Narendra Modi knew each other before the latter became chief minister, but they became very close soon after, in the aftermath of the 2002 pogrom. As this tragic episode of communal violence disrupted the state economy for weeks, businessmen including senior members of the Confederation of Indian Industry, criticised Modi. Rahul Bajaj, a senior member of the CII, described 2002 as a “lost year for Gujarat” and challenged Modi with several “tough questions” during a CII meeting in Delhi in February 2003, where Jamshyd Godrej also raised the issue. In November Azim Premji declared similarly at an IIM Ahmedabad seminar: “Investors are wary of coming to Gujarat due to the lingering communal tensions in the state apart from its proximity to Pakistan.” Tarun Das, the then director-ceneral of the CII went to Gandhinagar one month after the meeting of the organisation during which Narendra Modi had been criticised in Delhi and told him that the CII leaders “were very sorry for all that had happened.” But Gautam Adani and other CII members from Gujarat had already analysed the attitude of bigger businessmen from Gujarat as a great opportunity. They formed the “Resurgent Group of Gujarat” in order to counter what they regarded as “a concerted attempt by a section to defame Gujarat.” Among them were Dr Karsan Patel and Ambubhai Patel (Nirma group), Indravadan Modi (Cadila Pharmaceuticals), Pankaj Patel (Cadila Healthcares), Chintan Parikh (Ashima) Anil Bakeri (Bakeri group) and, last but not least, Gautam Adani who took a leading role. Like Modi, he was relatively isolated in 2002-03. He was not part of the business establishment either, as evident from his marginal position in terms of interlocking directorates. Both were newcomers to the high table of national politics on the one hand and big business on the other. When the first Vibrant Gujarat meeting took place in September-October 2003, Adani went further than his colleagues and pledged Rs 150 billion in investments. This was a major turning point of the Adani-Modi relationship: Modi could start to pay back for Adani’s support, not only within the CII but in the context of his transition from the role of “Hindu hriday samrat (ruler of Hindu hearts)” to that of “vikas purush (one who would bring about development)”. The Adani Port and SEZ (APSEZ) at Mundra (Kutch district) was created the same year to provide cargo handling and other port services. It soon became India’s first multi-product port-based SEZ, after Adani was granted 3,585 hectares (ha) of land, including 2,008 ha of forest and 990 ha of gauchar or village grazing land. Two converging investigations have alleged that the Adani Group bought this land, in one area, at a rate ranging from Re 1 to Rs 32 a square metre when the market rate was over Rs 1,500 rupees a square metre and, in another area, at the cost of Rs 10 rupees per sq. m., when the market price there was between Rs 700 and 800 per sq. m. In Mundra, Adani acquired up to 7,350 ha. Forbes argues, on the basis of the signed agreements, that for most of this area ‘he got the 30-year, renewable leases for as little as one US cent a square meter (the rate made out at 45 cents a square meter). He in turn has sublet this land to other companies, including state-owned Indian Oil Co., for as much as US$ 11 a square meter. Between 2005 and 2007 at least 1,200 hectares of grazing land was taken away from villagers.’ During the 2009 Vibrant Gujarat summit, the Modi government “signed MoUs allowing the Adani group a Rs-150-billion expansion of its SEZ over the next 15 years. The government topped off its largesse of land to the Adani group with five-year tax breaks of over Rs 32 billion, almost four times what it had marked for redeveloping Kutch after the 2001 earthquake. Government data shows an investment of Rs 1.32 trillion in the Adani SEZ, port, and power plant, but only 38,875 jobs were created. That comes to an astonishing figure of Rs 33.8 million for creating one job…”. This is a clear indication of capital intensity – a question we’ll return to below. In 2013, a CAG report pointed out that in the Adani Group’s SEZ in Mundra “14 lease deeds for an area of 4,84,326 sq. mt. in MPSEZ were registered during the period from December 2008 to November 2011. However, the Collector had given permission to only one unit […] Accordingly, the transfer of land admeasuring 4,65,728 sq. mt. by way of lease in the remaining 13 cases were irregular”. The CAG also indicted the Gujarat government for purchasing electricity from the Adani group at an abnormally high price. It pointed out that this “non-adherence to the terms of Power Purchase Agreement led to short recovery of a penalty of Rs 1.60 billion and passing of undue benefit to a private firm”. In 2012, the Modi-Adani connection was targeted by Arvind Kejriwal, the leader of the Aam Aadmi Party who, the year before, had taken part in anti-corruption campaigns along with Anna Hazare. He accused the Gujarat government of buying power from the Adani Group at Rs 5.45 per unit when the Gujarat Mineral Development Corporation had made a better offer. Gas was another source of income for the Adani group, as it had also acquired a monopolistic position in the supply of CNG in Ahmedabad. In its last report dealing with the Modi government in Gujarat, the CAG reiterated the critique it had made in 2012 against the Adani group and arraigned the Essar group too: “…The purchase of power from the private sector increased to 37.22% (2012-13) from 15.22% (2008-09). Of this increase, the share of Private IPPs in power purchased from private sector [the Adani and the Essar groups], increased to 82.75% (i.e. 22,562.17 million units) in 2012-13 from 66.59% (i.e. 5,653.24 million units) indicating an increase of 300% in purchase of power from them during 2008-09 to 2012-13.” The Adani group was also targeted by environmentalists. The Gujarat Coastal Zone Management Authority (GCZMA), in May 2006, formed a subcommittee which reported that the Adani Group had built many bunds in the inter-tidal area and blocked many creeks feeding water to the mangrove patches. To no avail. Four years later, in December 2010 the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) sent an inspection team to follow up on complaints from local inhabitants. The report presented after the visit found many instances of non-compliances. It made the same observations regarding large scale destruction of mangroves and obstruction of creek systems and natural flow of seawater because of reclamation. It made no difference. On September 14, 2012, the Minister of State of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Jayanthi Natarajan constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Sunita Narain, the director of the think-tank Centre for Science and Environment, for an inspection of Mundra port. It reached the same conclusions as its predecessors.

Dharali-like disasters could become more frequent & deadlier: Experts

Between June 1 and Aug 5 this year, 65% of days - 43 out of 66 - recorded extreme weather events, the highest frequency in four years, far exceeding 59% in 2024, 47% in 2023 and 33% in 2022, according to the Centre for Science and Environment's (CSE) DEHRADUN: The devastating flash flood that tore through Dharali village in Uttarkashi on Aug 5, leaving dozens missing and entire families displaced, comes amid a sharp escalation of monsoon extremes in Uttarakhand, fuelling concerns that climate change is intensifying the Himalayan state's vulnerability to natural disasters. Experts have cautioned that without urgent adaptation measures, "disasters like Dharali are likely to become more frequent and more deadly in the years ahead". Between June 1 and Aug 5 this year, 65% of days - 43 out of 66 - recorded extreme weather events, the highest frequency in four years, far exceeding 59% in 2024, 47% in 2023 and 33% in 2022, according to the Centre for Science and Environment's (CSE) analysis of India's Atlas on Weather Disasters. Since June 1, weather-related incidents across the state have claimed 39 lives, with 13 people still missing - figures that do not include the 43 still unaccounted for in Dharali, as per the State Emergency Operation Centre (SEOC) of the Uttarakhand State Disaster Management Authority (USDMA). Collaboration between scientists and policymakers vital to build resilience in Uttarkashi region: Expert Professor Anjal Prakash, IPCC author and climate adaptation expert, called the trend “alarming”, saying it reflects the deepening impact of climate change on fragile Himalayan ecosystems. The region’s complex terrain and weather patterns already make it susceptible to intense rainfall and landslides, but warming temperatures, he said, are altering monsoon behaviour and increasing the severity of events. He added that human-driven factors, including deforestation, unplanned development and glacier melt, are compounding the risks. Rivers fed by glacier melt and extreme rainfall are increasingly likely to trigger flash floods, as seen in Dharali. Prakash added that reducing disaster risk will require stronger early warning systems, sustainable land-use planning and afforestation, combined with communitybased preparedness. “Collaboration between scientists and policymakers is vital to build resilience in this fragile region,” Prakash said. Glaciologist DP Dobhal, former scientist at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, warned that climate change is pushing the zerodegree isotherm -the altitude where snowfall occurs -to higher levels. “A decade ago, summer rainfall typically occurred below 4,500 metres, but now it is happening at 5,000-5,200 metres, which is a clear indication of rising temperatures,” he said. Dobhal added that rising temperatures at higher altitudes are accelerating glacier melt, increasing the risk of hazards such as glacier bursts and glacial lake outburst floods.