• Director General Office

After the floods...

What you need to know: In June, this year, scientists from World Weather Attribution said climate change contributed to the disastrous heavy downpours and warned that such would become more frequent if nothing was done. The government promised financial assistance to help families build a new life away from the riparian land. It’s a Sunday morning and Tereza Atieno and her husband Wycliffe Miller are standing on the banks of the Nairobi River, cradling their five-month-old twins. Five months ago, this scene would have unfolded inside what used to be their humble iron-sheet rental house. A few metres away from where we are standing flows the river, now reduced to a sluggish, murky trickle—a far cry from the force that once flooded their home in Mathare’s informal settlement, a place they called home for nearly four years The contrast between past and present is stark, as the couple stare at the sluggishly moving water, heavy with silt and pollution. A faint, stale smell lingered in the air, carried by the sluggish current, as if the water itself had grown weary of its journey. Flies buzzed over the garbage-lined banks, adding to the stench. The last time they stood there, the river had overflowed, submerging their compound and leaving them homeless. “The night we first experienced the heavy rainfall, my twin babies were just three days old. About three weeks later, a heavy downpour flooded the whole compound and water got inside our house. My husband helped our children and me to vacate the house to a neighbouring school for our safety and health,” Ms Tereza tells Climate Action. That night, while the rain hammered on their tin roof, she had retired to bed, unaware of the looming disaster until her husband, who had been out watching an English Premier League match, rushed in shouting. By the time they were being evacuated to a nearby school, their house had been reduced to a waterlogged shell, with most of their belongings destroyed or swept away. What was supposed to be a temporary shelter became their home for nearly two months. They survived the ordeal, but the experience took a toll on the young family. She remembers battling hunger and poor sanitation at the shelter. "We only had one meal a day. It wasn’t enough for me as a lactating mother or my babies. Without proper nutrition and clean water, my health deteriorated, and my children suffered from skin rashes. I had constant diarrhoea,” she says. For two months, they shared cramped classrooms with other flood victims. When schools reopened, they were forced to leave, but to where? She asks rhetorically. A friend offered them temporary accommodation, but the emotional and financial scars remained. “Our life by the river was never easy, but the flood took everything—our belongings, our security," says Wycliffe. "We saved nothing but our lives.” In June, this year, scientists from World Weather Attribution said climate change contributed to the disastrous heavy downpours and warned that such would become more frequent if nothing was done. The government promised financial assistance to help families build a new life away from the riparian land. “We didn’t receive it,” she says. Last month, the couple and their children moved to a new rental house, far from the river and on the third floor of a brick building. “Every day is a battle to survive,” she says. In Busia County, far from Nairobi, 36-year-old Lilian Ajiambo shares a similar story of displacement and hardship. While pregnant during the floods that hit the region in 2023, Lilian fled her rural home with her children and husband, seeking refuge at a local school. “Life at the camp was difficult because, in one classroom, we used to stay with six different families. Whenever I needed antenatal clinic services, I had to cross the lake using a boat to reach a health facility,” Ms Ajiambo tells Climate Action. Before the flood, Lilian’s family lived off farming and selling fish, but the disaster washed away her livelihood. "When we returned home, our house had collapsed, and the farm was swamped. Now, I work on other people’s farms to survive," she laments. Back in Nairobi’s Mathare settlement, Patrick Mwanzia, another flood victim, recounts how difficult it has been to rebuild his life. After receiving a government payout of Sh10,000, he managed to rent a house, but his troubles are far from over. "I didn’t pay rent before the floods. Now, I pay Sh4,000 a month. I lost my bathroom and water business when the flood swept everything away, including my tank. I used to guard a nearby school at night, but the school is gone too,” he offers. With scientific data suggesting that 200 million people could be displaced by climate change by 2030, the outlook is grim. According to Teresa Anderson, Climate Justice Lead at ActionAid, the current flow of climate financing is skewed. "Too much money is fuelling climate destruction, while too little is invested in solutions. This deepens inequality and traps economies in a vicious cycle." Dr Francis Oremo, senior programme manager at the Institute for Law and Environmental Governance, points to inadequate infrastructure as a major contributor to the crisis. "We live in a country where scientific advice is ignored, and flood management plans are non-existent. The result? Chaotic evictions, displaced communities, and mismanaged funds." According to Sunita Narain, Director-general at the Centre for Science and Environment, there is a need to echo the urgency for better flood management. "Climate change is intensifying water and heat stress globally. We’re seeing more rain, but in fewer days, leading to both floods and droughts. Governments must adopt water harvesting and flood control strategies as urban populations grow." For Tereza Atieno and other families, the trauma of displacement lingers, heightened by the constant threat of future floods. Professor Sean Holman, an expert in climate journalism, warns that survivors are often left vulnerable long after the floodwaters recede. "Post-traumatic stress from such events can resurface at any moment, especially with looming flood warnings. The emotional toll on survivors is immense, yet governments that fail to help only deepen their suffering." The families are uncertain of the future but thankful for their survival. For now, that has to be enough

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

GRAP Made More Stringent As City Braces For Winter Pollution

With the winter just a few months away, the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which comes into force once the air quality index crosses 200, has been revised with three more restrictive actions added in stage III, when AQI turns severe. Actions under stages II to IV of GRAP will also be enforced three days in advance based on the forecast that high AQI levels are likely to remain for a longer period of at least three days. Apart from the existing restrictions like the ban on BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers and construction activity under stage III, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the national capital region (NCR) and adjoining areas has added a prohibition on interstate buses running on non-cleaner fuels, BS-III or below diesel-operated light commercial vehicles, and heavy goods vehicles in Delhi. This is the first time when the commission has decided to implement GRAP depending on the higher projected AQI levels for longer periods. The restrictions will consider AQI and the forecast by India Meteorological Department and Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology. "Actions under stages II, III and IV of GRAP will be invoked in advance of AQI reaching the projected levels of that stage and also provided that the higher projected AQI levels are likely to sustain for longer periods (say three days or more)," CAQM stated. "While this is increasing the degree of stringency, its implementation will require preparedness and a strategy," pointed out Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director of research and advocacy at Centre for Science and Environment. Since construction and demolition activities in the entire NCR are banned in stage III when AQI is between 400 and 450, the revised GRAP clarifies that among the dust-generating activities, which will continue to be prohibited, are major welding and gas-cutting operations; cement, plaster or other coatings, except for minor indoor repairs/maintenance; cutting or grinding and fixing of tiles, stones and other flooring materials, except for minor indoor repairs; and waterproofing work and transfer, loading or unloading of dust-generating materials like cement, fly ash, bricks, sand, murram, pebbles, crushed stone, etc., anywhere within or outside the project sites. However, on the lines of previous years, linear public projects, emergency projects, sanitation, national importance, ancillary activities and non-dust generating activities will be exempted under stage III. Besides, under stage II of GRAP, when AQI is between 300 and 400, there will be no restriction on diesel generator sets of 62kV to less than 800kV, which are running on dual-fuel mode or retro-fitted emission-control devices through certified agencies. "CAQM announces a revised GRAP schedule to further strengthen measures to combat sudden or anticipated deterioration of air quality in Delhi-NCR during the upcoming winter season. GRAP has been formulated after careful consideration of scientific data, stakeholder inputs and expert recommendations along with field experience and learnings in the past years," the commission stated. GRAP is an emergency response mechanism for the entire NCR, based on average AQI levels in Delhi, which brings together multiple stakeholders, implementing agencies and authorities to respond to the situations of deteriorating air quality in Delhi-NCR. "The revised GRAP schedule will come into force in the entire NCR now and different stages will be imposed accordingly through specific orders issued from time to time as per the air quality conditions of the region. It shall serve as a tool towards abatement of adverse air quality in NCR generally witnessed during the peak winter months," said CAQM.

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Study shows African nations are critically water insecure

All African nations are water insecure and host 22 per cent of the world’s critically water insecure population, a new report has revealed. The State of Africa’s Environment 2024 report by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), India, shows only 201 million people in the 54 Africa countries have access to safely managed drinking water with more than 411 million others lacking basic drinking water service. “Most of African countries have abundant freshwater resources. However, abundant natural water availability does not necessarily ensure water security. The reason is most Africa has the lowest levels of safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) services, undermining water security,” reads part of the report. Speaking at the report launch in Nairobi, CSE director general Sunita Narain said water scarcity in Africa is not due to a lack of resources but rather poor management. Abundant freshwater She highlighted that, despite the availability of abundant freshwater in many regions, ineffective policies and inadequate infrastructure are major contributors to the water crisis, particularly in the areas of WASH. Climate change is also exacerbating the already fragile water systems across the continent. “Only a fraction of the continent’s water endowment is effectively used. In some of the driest regions, like sub-Saharan Africa, overexploitation of groundwater and inadequate investment in water infrastructure have left millions without reliable access to clean water,” she said. According to the report, apart from poor water management another two major discontinuities in water governance have emerged: the shift from community-based management to state control and the growing dependence on surface and groundwater sources, while traditional methods like rainwater harvesting are underutilized. This is why revival of rainwater harvesting, paired with modern scientific innovations, could significantly alleviate the water stress in Africa. “If nothing is done, Africa is expected to experience the most significant decline in per capita renewable water resources by 2100. If all water use was to be met from rivers and groundwater systems, riverine ecosystems and groundwater resources will come under extreme stress, as is already being noticed across the continent,” she said. According to the report, the earlier reliance on rainwater and floodwater has declined, even though rainwater and floodwater are available in much greater abundance than river water or groundwater. Theoretically, the potential of water harvesting in meeting household needs is enormous. Even in an arid area with an annual rainfall level of only 100 mm, one hectare of land can theoretically capture as much as one million litres of water. As there is a synergy between population density and rainfall levels, less land is required in more densely populated areas to capture the same amount of rainwater. And in such areas, there is usually more built-up area like roof-tops which have improved runoff efficiency. Rainwater harvesting can not only provide a source of water to increase water supplies but also involve the public in water management, making water management everybody’s business. “It will also reduce the current demand on government institutions to meet water needs, reduce the need for government subsidies, and help everyone to internalise the full costs of their water requirements, thus encouraging the public to be more conserving in its water demand. In rural areas water harvesting will also be an integral part of an integrated programme for sustainable development of land and water resources on a watershed basis whose objective is to improve total biomass output,” reveals the report Water harvesting According to Sunita, water harvesting and integrated land-water management is not new to the Africa continent, or to many other parts of the developing world. The art and science of “collecting water where it falls” is ancient but this “dying wisdom” needs to be revived to meet modern freshwater needs adequately, equitably and sustainably and modernised with inputs from science and technology. In human terms, rainwater harvesting means making water everybody’s business. Every household becomes involved both in the provision of water and in the protection of water sources. It means making water the subject of a people’s movement, re-establishing the relationship between people and their environment and turning water into a sacred element of nature. It means the empowerment of urban and rural communities to manage their own affairs with the state playing a critical supportive role and the civil society playing a critical role in encouraging equity and sustainability in the use of water. It means a role for everybody with respect to water.

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Cholera continues to claim 115 lives per hour across Africa – Report

Cholera, commonly known as a "disease of poverty," continues to claim 115 lives deaths per hour among marginalized communities in Africa that lack access to clean water, sanitation, and healthcare. Unsafe sanitation practices and behaviours are resulting in greater water pollution, disease outbreaks, and rising mortality rates across Africa, the 2024 State of Africa’s Environment report on water said. The report released by the Indian-Based Centre for Science and Environment highlights that death rates from unsafe water sources in Africa are alarmingly high, reaching 50 deaths per 100,000 people—1,000 times higher than in developed countries. Nigeria experienced one of the largest cholera outbreaks, affecting 32 of its 36 states, with around 90,000 people falling ill and over 3,000 deaths reported by the end of 2021. In 2023, Zimbabwe faced one of its most severe cholera outbreaks in recent years, spreading to all 10 provinces. By May 2024, the country had recorded more than 30,000 cholera cases and 600 deaths in the first four months of the year. In Ethiopia, limited access to safe water and sanitation has contributed to cholera becoming endemic. Since the outbreak began in August 2022, the country reported 44,044 cases and 571 deaths by May 2024. Additionally, between 2019 and 2021, Ethiopia documented a total of 15,515 suspected cholera cases. “Three-fourths of the cases were reported from the drought-affected regions of Oromia, Somali and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region.” According to the Ethiopia Public Health Institute, as mentioned in the report, over 15.9 million Ethiopians, about 15 percent of the total population, reside in areas with a history of recurring cholera outbreaks. National cholera surveillance data from the past nine years (2015-2023) indicate that the country has experienced cholera outbreaks annually. In Malawi, the cholera outbreak began in early 2022 and persisted into 2023-2024, with over 36,000 cases and 600 deaths recorded by early May 2024. The report notes that Malawi has not been cholera-free since 1973. According to a CSE report, in the last 11 months of 2022, more than 950 Malawians died, and approximately 29,000 cholera cases were reported during that time. “For Africa, it has been a scourge for the last 53 years. For the second driest continent of the world with high level of inequality in access to safe water and sanitation, the disease burden is too high. Various studies estimate that at least 40 million people live in cholera-endemic areas in Africa with a risk of frequent outbreaks,” the report said. The report indicated that in January 2023, the WHO categorized the global increase in cholera as a Grade 3 Emergency, the highest classification for a health crisis necessitating a thorough response. One year later, over 30 countries reported cholera cases, with the African region ranking second after the Eastern Mediterranean Region. “From January 1 to May 16, 2024, some 194,897 cholera cases and 1,932 deaths were reported worldwide. The region with the highest reported case count was the Eastern Mediterranean Region, followed by the African Region, the Region of the Americas, the Southeast Asia Region, and the European Region.” According to the WHO Africa Region’s Monthly Regional Cholera Bulletin dated June 30, 2024, cholera outbreaks were reported in 14 countries across the continent. It was classified as a “crisis” in Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Ethiopia. “Since the beginning of the year 2024, the number of cholera cases and deaths reported to the WHO Regional Office for Africa (afro) as of 30 June was 104, 038 and 1, 732 respectively, with a case fatality ratio of 1.7 per cent. Comoros, Ethiopia, Congo, Zambia, and Zimbabwe account for 85.7 per cent (89,208) of the total cases and 91.2 per cent (1,580) of total deaths reported till June 30, 2024,” the report quoted the afro’s monthly bulletin released in July 2024. Unsafe water and poor sanitation 2021 figures in the report show that Africa accounted for nearly half (44%) of the global deaths attributed to unsafe water and poor sanitation, totaling 533,276.79 deaths out of 1,215,365.13. Nigeria accounted for 28.04% representing 149,811 deaths, Ethiopia 8.28% (44,212 deaths), Chad 5.49% (29,262 deaths), and Ghana 1.55% (8,271 deaths). Sao Tome and Principe, Libya, and Tunisia recorded the lowest figures of 0.01%, 0.02%, and 0.03%, respectively. The report highlights that the decline in groundwater quality is an emerging challenge that exacerbates the disease burden. It notes that, although much of the economy in Sub-Saharan Africa relies on groundwater, insufficient attention is given to its quality. “Due to geological formations several African countries have higher concentrations of fluorides, arsenic and chlorides. These also make groundwater unfit for drinking without treatment.” A 2020 study by CSE found high concentrations of iron, magnesium, and chlorides in Uganda's groundwater, attributed to natural mineralization. Fluoride levels also exceeded WHO drinking water guidelines due to volcanic deposits. These conditions, CSE says, can lead to various health issues, such as fluorosis, while high iron levels contribute to unpleasant odors and tastes, and manganese can damage plumbing fixtures and laundry. In Tanzania, the CSE study identified that groundwater is contaminated with nitrates and sulfates. The mining of these resources, along with the hazardous dumping of waste, leads to pollution in water bodies, increasing their salt and mineral content and affecting their pH levels (acidity or basicity). "The community should either have community-level water supply systems which treat the groundwater before supply to households or there should be mechanisms where the groundwater supplies are treated before supply to households, which again can be a costly affair for the rural households,” CSE recommended.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Delhi-NCR revises, ramps up measures to tackle air pollution ahead of winter

With winter approaching, the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) in DelhiNCR has been revised, introducing three additional restrictive measures for stage III, which applies when the air quality index (AQI) exceeds 200 and reaches severe levels, reported TOI. to IV will be implemented three days in advance if forecasts indicate prolonged high AQI levels. In addition to existing restrictions, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has now prohibited interstate buses running on nonclean fuels, as well as BS-III diesel-operated light commercial vehicles and heavy goods vehicles in Delhi, noted the TOI report. Earlier, a ban was placed on BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers and construction activities during stage III. This marks the first time the commission will apply GRAP based on projected AQI levels expected to persist over extended periods. Restrictions will be guided by both AQI data and forecasts from the India Meteorological Department and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology. “Actions under stages II, III and IV of GRAP will be invoked in advance of AQI reaching the projected levels of that stage and also provided that the higher projected AQI levels are likely to sustain for longer periods (say three days or more)” stated CAQM. Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director of research and advocacy at the Centre for Science and Environment, told TOI that while these measures Under stage III, when AQI is between 400 and 450, construction and demolition activities will be completely banned. Prohibited dust-generating activities include major welding and gas-cutting, plastering and coatings (except minor indoor repairs), cutting or grinding of flooring materials (except minor indoor work), waterproofing, and the transfer, loading, or unloading of dust-producing materials like cement and bricks. However, as in previous years, linear public projects, emergency initiatives, sanitation, national importance projects, and non-dust-generating activities will remain exempt during stage III. Under stage II, when AQI is between 300 and 400, there will be no restrictions on diesel generator sets between 62 kV and 800 kV using dual-fuel mode or retrofitted emission-control devices certified by authorised agencies. "CAQM announces a revised GRAP schedule to further strengthen measures to combat sudden or anticipated deterioration of air quality in Delhi-NCR during the upcoming winter season. GRAP has been formulated after careful consideration of scientific data, stakeholder inputs and expert recommendations along with field experience and learnings in the past years," the commission stated. GRAP serves as an emergency response mechanism across the NCR, relying on average AQI levels in Delhi to coordinate actions among various stakeholders and authorities to address deteriorating air quality. "The revised GRAP schedule will come into force in the entire NCR now and different stages will be imposed accordingly through specific orders issued from time to time as per the air quality conditions of the region. It shall serve as a tool towards abatement of adverse air quality in NCR generally witnessed during the peak winter months," CAQM further said.

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CSE report warns decline in groundwater in African countries, urges revival of ancient rainwater harvesting techniques

The Indian-Based Centre for Science and Environment is cautioning that several African countries may face an impending groundwater crisis due to excessive use of water extraction systems for various needs. Countries like Tanzania and Uganda, despite being rich in water resources, are experiencing water scarcity. In Tanzania, for example, freshwater resources are essential for hydroelectric power and the extensive wetlands, spanning over 85,000 hectares, support both the economy. The country also hosts about 5.7% of its land area covered by Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Nyasa, along with several smaller lakes. Nevertheless, a significant portion of its rural population still struggles with limited access to water sources. “Despite being home to approximately 25 per cent of the world's freshwater resources, it could see a water-stressed future. The country manages its water demand through its rivers Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji and Ruvuma; lakes Nyasa, Rukwa, Tanganyika and Victoria; and internal drainage basins of Lake Eyasi, Lake Manyara and the Bubu depression; and its southern coast. The rivers are largely perennial barring a few that are intermittent and ephemeral,” the report said. According to the 2024 State of Africa Environment report, released yesterday in Nairobi, Tanzania is entirely dependent on rainfall for its water supply. All of its rivers are rain-fed, and both surface and groundwater sources rely on rainwater. “More than 70 per cent of the population live in rural areas and depend to a large extent on groundwater reserves, mostly rainwater seeping into aquifers. In addition, groundwater is used for domestic purposes in peri-urban and urban areas, where there is no distribution network. While urban areas depend on borewells, rain-fed shallow wells are common in most of the country. Almost 65 per cent of the groundwater is used for domestic supplies,” it stated. The report identifies population growth, industrial and agricultural activities, and rapid urbanization as major challenges driving increased water demand in Tanzania. This has led to excessive groundwater extraction, raising concerns about the sustainability and yield of groundwater sources, particularly in hard-rock areas with low recharge rates. For instance, in the Dodoma region, many local government areas have non-functional taps, reflecting the low sustainability of available water sources. Rainfall distribution in Tanzania is highly variable with the southern regions receiving the majority of their rainfall over two to three months each year. For the rest of the year, they rely heavily on groundwater, which is often challenging to access. "Rainfall pattern is also highly variable. The highlands in southwest Tanzania receive 1,200 mm per year of rainfall while the internal drainage basin receives less than 600 mm per year of rainfall." Similar to Tanzania, the primary source of water for rural Uganda is spring water, supplemented by boreholes and shallow wells with hand pumps. In Uganda, 61% of the country's water is derived from groundwater sources, accessed primarily through springs and boreholes located around Lake Victoria and in the southwestern region. According to the report, groundwater is the primary source of water supply in rural Uganda, including in semi-arid and arid regions. It is typically found in weathered or fractured basement rocks and has a yield ranging from 0.5 to 80 cubic meters per hour. “There has been groundwater use since the 1930s through the construction of deep boreholes, shallow wells and protected springs. On average, 1,200 tubewells and 900 shallow wells are constructed annually in Uganda. Approximately 40,000 deep boreholes, 16,000 shallow wells and 30,000 protected springs have been constructed in the country mainly for rural domestic water supply. Boreholes and shallow wells are normally installed with handpumps,” it explained. The situation in Uganda mirrors that of Tanzania, with high population growth and agricultural and industrial expansion leading to unplanned groundwater development and usage. This has raised concerns about the future yield and sustainability of groundwater in certain areas, particularly in the north-eastern and south-western regions, where natural groundwater recharge is lower compared to other parts of the country. “There are reports of poor-quality groundwater mainly due to inadequate sanitation facilities—in many areas high nitrate and bacteriological contamination of groundwater have been reported. High fluoride and iron and manganese above permissible limits have also been found in the groundwater due to natural reasons, impacting public health and the economy of Uganda,” the report statement. Why rainwater harvesting system? The report is advocating for rainwater harvesting and recharging the groundwater sources to improve both quality and quantity of reserves in African countries. “Rural areas need to implement groundwater recharge structures efficiently as more than 90 per cent of Tanzania’s rural water schemes are dependent on groundwater.” The report presents an intriguing argument that modern water supply systems for villages may be more costly compared to traditional water-harvesting methods still widely used in rural areas for both irrigation and drinking water. It clarifies that "traditional systems" do not imply outdated or dilapidated structures but rather refer to approaches distinct from large, capital-intensive, government-managed systems. In addition to their high financial costs, modern systems often impose significant ecological costs and may conflict with fundamental principles of sound agroclimatic planning. Conversely, traditional community-based structures not only support sustainable water use but also enhance social cohesion. “The responsibility of taking decisions and action should be left to individuals, groups and local communities working together, encouraging economic independence and optimization of local resources at the micro-level. Traditional systems use low-cost, user-friendly techniques and are easily kept in good operational condition by local communities.” Potential of rainwater harvesting Further analysis in the report examines the typical rainwater potential of a small plot of land by using a hectare that receives 100 mm of rainfall annually. It highlights that this amount of rainwater can yield up to 1 million liters, which is sufficient to satisfy the drinking and cooking water needs of 182 people, assuming a generous daily requirement of 15 liters per person. “Even if you are not able to capture all that water — this would depend on the nature of rainfall events and type of runoff surface, among other factors — you could still, even with rudimentary technology, capture at least half-a-million litres a year.” According to calculations by CSE, Sub-Saharan Africa has a rainwater harvesting potential of 13,365,000 million cubic meters. To put this into perspective, this is nearly 44,550 times the daily volume of water that flows through the Nile River. Other studies, including those by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Agroforestry Centre, support this view, indicating that African countries experiencing water shortages due to climate change have significant rainwater harvesting potential. Countries like Ethiopia and Kenya, for example, have the capacity to meet the needs of six to seven times their current populations through rainwater harvesting. Per the study, the total amount of rain falling across Africa is sufficient to meet the needs of 9 billion people, which is one and a half times the current global population. Additionally, around a third of the continent is considered suitable for rainwater harvesting if the threshold for effective collection is set at 200 millimeters of rainfall—a relatively low measure. This indicates that Africa is not water-scarce; in fact, the rainfall is more than adequate to meet the needs of the current population multiple times over. The study further explains that Africa's water crisis is more an issue of economic investment rather than physical scarcity. It uses Kenya as an example, suggesting that if rainwater harvesting were factored in, Kenya would not be classified as a 'water-stressed country.' This highlights that the challenges are more about inadequate investment and infrastructure rather than a fundamental lack of water resources. Ethiopia's national rainwater harvesting initiative, known as "My Dam at My Door," along with Tanzania’s MKUKUTA and WSDP policies, and similar projects in Zimbabwe and Malawi, are focused on promoting the sustainable and efficient use of rainwater. These policies, designed to address the escalating impacts of climate change, involve governments, private sectors, and individuals in various efforts to enhance rainwater harvesting. Initiatives include constructing large-scale reservoirs in public institutions such as schools and hospitals, training local communities, and offering subsidies for rainwater harvesting equipment. In Malawi, for example, the Rainwater Harvesting Association of Malawi (RHAM) has implemented over 200 "calabash" rainwater harvesting systems since 2021. These systems are engineered to capture and store rainwater during the rainy season, providing a reliable water source for agriculture and domestic use throughout the entire year.

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Kenya: Nairobi, Mombasa Among 25 African Cities Facing Water Scarcity

Nairobi and Mombasa are some of the African cities that are grappling with water shortages, a new report reveals, highlighting the impact of urbanization on meager resources. A new report by the Centre for Science and Environment India titled 'The State of Africa's Environment Report 2024', which covered 25 cities on the continent, projects worsening conditions in the next three decades if drastic action is not executed. According to the report, more than 16 million of the Kenyan population relies on untreated and unsafe water sources, such as ponds, shallow wells, rivers, and lakes, for drinking water--a situation that is dire for the urban poor. Experts have now attributed water poverty in urban areas, particularly slums, to low supply, high demand, and poor water management planning. This situation is mainly catalyzed by rural-urban migration, which has accelerated the population density in cities and towns in the country. "Kenya is facing an unprecedented water crisis in its expanding urban areas like rural areas. Kenya is lagging in delivering water to its 50 million people, with at least a third of the population lacking access to clean drinking water," the report noted. Speaking during the launch of the report, on Monday in Nairobi, Malesi Shivaji, CEO of Kenya Water and Civil Society Network (KEWASNET), noted that the current water system infrastructure is incapable of serving the accelerating number of people in urban centers in the country. "There has been a dependence on the same infrastructure 60 years down the line. The same pipes that were there 40 years ago are the same pipes that are supplying water to the 50 Million people in the country," he said. Furthermore, he noted that the lack of proper and sufficient sanitary stations, such as toilets, in cities has increased the risk of water pollution, thus exposing residents to waterborne diseases such as cholera. "The lack of sanitation station has led to cases of open defecation, leading to water pollution," he stated. Francis Oremo, Senior Programme Manager, Institute of Law and Environmental Governance, Nairobi, pointed out that lack of sufficient investment in water harvesting infrastructures in the country and Africa at large has greatly contributed to the shortage of water, despite the continent having abundant water sources. There is no room for business as usual we have to manage our water very well or we shall lose everything," he stated. According to Sunita Narain, who is the Director General of the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) India, sustainable methods such as water recycling and incorporation of technology should be heavily executed to improve the accessibility and affordability of water on the continent. "If we can use technology in other sectors I think it's very possible to integrate technology in water recycling, If technology, water supply, and waste management are affordable, it will be sustainable. If you improve water security people's lives will be improved. Reinvent our sewage system so that it is more affordable," she stated. The report has thus recommended measures to counter the water scarcity menace in Kenya, which include desalination of seawater, groundwater exploitation, reservoir construction, interbasin water transfer, and domestic virtual trade. Between the years 1990 and 2020, the number of African cities skyrocketed from 3300 to 7600, consequently increasing the urban population on the continent to 500 million.

• Director General Office

Politics of inclusion

We know we stand at a crossroads. Unsustainable growth means we are hurtling towards climate catastrophe and inequitable growth means we are hurtling towards increased poverty, increased marginalisation and increased anger. Our learning in India is that growth that is not affordable, in other words not equitable, cannot be sustainable. This, then, is the agenda for the future. Consider the challenge of Delhi’s toxic air pollution. It’s not that we are not trying to make a difference. All coal plants have been shut; pet coke import (incidentally the ones that the United States exports as it is toxic for local use) has been banned; and we are switching to the cleanest fuels and vehicle technology. Despite these incremental actions, we stay behind the pollution crisis. My colleagues estimate that air pollution in Delhi has reduced by 25 per cent over the past three years, as compared to the previous three years; but it still needs to be reduced by 65 per cent to get what you will call clean air. The reason is simple: today less than 20 per cent of my city drives in cars to work; roughly 25 per cent own cars. But these vehicle owners take 90 per cent of the road space. The question is, if the demand of just 20 per cent is leading to huge congestion and pollution, where and how can the city find the road and air space for all? This is where the environmentalism of the poor kicks in. The fact is, if the rich are to breathe clean air, we need to rework mobility for all. We cannot think of adding a few buses or trams or metros; we need to transform mobility so that it works for the rich and the poor. This means combining affordability and convenience and safety. This is also the case with energy. Many households in my world still use biomass to cook food because they are poor. These air pollutants, which are killing poor people, are also contaminating the airshed they share with the rich. So, if we want clean air, we will have to get the rich out of their polluting vehicles, but we will also have to ensure that the poor households get options to move out of dirty fuels. Their energy transition is important for clean air. This is why without inclusive growth; we cannot have sustainability. The opportunity is also enormous. If we reinvent for transformative action we will focus on the needs of the poor women and provide them viable, affordable options to leapfrog — from non-fossil dirty fuels to non-fossil clean fuels. But this is where the world needs leadership so that finance for the energy transition is concessional and provides the opportunity to scale up the system for the poorest in the world. The challenge of climate change is a mirror to the air pollution challenge we face in Delhi. In 1990, my colleague Anil Agarwal and I argued in our publication "Global Warming in an Unequal World" that the world cannot combat climate change unless the agreement is fair and equitable. Today, the same issue is on the table. If the solutions cannot meet the needs of all — are equitable — they will not work. This is where we need to understand this environmentalism of the poor again. It is clear that events in our world are spiralling out of control. Every year is the hottest year, till the next year comes around. Then a new record is broken. From forest fires, to increasing frequency and intensity of storms to blistering cold waves and scorching heat — it’s all getting worse. Then we face the most inconvenient truth. At current rates, the world will run out of the carbon budget — how much it can emit to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius — by 2030. But there are vast numbers of people who do not have access to basic energy. They need energy for their development. This is why we need cooperation so that future development can be low-carbon for all. It is clear that increasing numbers of disasters because of growing intensity and frequency of weird and abnormal weather will make the poor, poorer. Their impoverishment and marginalisation will add to their desperation to move away from their lands and to seek alternative livelihoods. Their only choice will be to migrate — move to the city; move to another country. The double-jeopardy, as I have called it, in the interconnected world is the push — lack of options — and the pull — bright lights that suggest a choice to better futures. This will add to the already volatile situation of boat people and migrants at the border walls, making our world insecure and violent. This is the cycle of destructive change that we must fight. Our globalised world is interconnected and interdependent, and we must recognise this. Sustainable development is not possible if it is not equitable. Growth has to be affordable and inclusive for it to be sustainable. But all this will not happen, unless we articulate that the environmental challenge is not technocratic but political. We cannot neuter the politics of access, justice and rights and hope to fix the environment or indeed development. DTE

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Missing the mark: India’s National Clean Air Programme

When the National Clean Air Programme was launched in 2019, it set high ambitions and targets for some of India’s most polluted cities: To reduce air pollution concentrations, scale up air pollution monitoring and forecasting, and conduct pollution source apportionment studies. But five years later, not only are cities behind in meeting their targets, but also most measures to reduce air pollution have ignored major polluters responsible for causing toxic emissions, year round. A new report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) revealed that funds under the programme were overwhelmingly spent on actions amounting to dust management: paving roads, covering potholes, and deploying mechanical sweepers and water sprinklers. Less than one percent was spent on controlling toxic emissions from industry, and around 40% of funds out of Rs. 10,566.47 crores are unused. “It means there’s no strong intent to deal with the problem,” said Jyoti Pande Lavakare, author of the book Breathing Here is Injurious to Your Health and co-founder of Care for Air, a non-profit that works on awareness about air pollution. “Spending money on mere mitigation via dust management and not actually reducing emissions at source by taking strict action against polluters who violate air pollution norms with impunity, means there’s no sincere effort to reduce pollution. The dust is back in the air within hours; a total waste of public money, just like smog towers,” she said. The 131 cities currently covered by NCAP were selected as they did not meet national air quality standards consecutively for five-years between 2011-2015. Five years later, most cities have failed to meet the NCAP’s target of reducing air pollution concentrations by 20-30% compared to 2017 levels. In fact, most gains in reducing air pollution from 2014-2021 came from gusty winds and other meteorological factors, a recent study found.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Centre report ranks Kolkata at 41 among 46 cities in air pollution control for 2023-24

A recent report of the ministry of environment, forest and climate change (MoEFCC) has ranked Kolkata close to the bottom among Indian cities with a million-plus population in air pollution control performance for 2023-24. This comes despite marginal improvement in annual pollution level. The trend is similar among the six major metropolises – Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Chennai – despite the cities collectively receiving around Rs 3,200 crores to control air pollution. Kolkata, which has received Rs 846.25 crores since 2018-19, could spend nearly 80 per cent of the sanctioned amount. The city recorded a nearly 25 per cent reduction in the annual average of PM 10, the benchmark pollutant, during the period but the pollutant level of 2023-24 — 94 microgram per cubic metre of air — was still more than 50 per cent higher than the national permissible limit of 60 micrograms. The report, Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 (Clean Air Study 2024), has ranked Kolkata 41st among 46 cities in the list, just above Chennai in terms of air pollution control performance among mega metropolises. The report has ranked cities based on their activities approved under the city action plan earmarked within the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). A recent report of the ministry of environment, forest and climate change (MoEFCC) has ranked Kolkata close to the bottom among Indian cities with a million-plus population in air pollution control performance for 2023-24. This comes despite marginal improvement in annual pollution level. The trend is similar among the six major metropolises – Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Chennai – despite the cities collectively receiving around Rs 3,200 crores to control air pollution. ADVERTISEMENT Kolkata, which has received Rs 846.25 crores since 2018-19, could spend nearly 80 per cent of the sanctioned amount. The city recorded a nearly 25 per cent reduction in the annual average of PM 10, the benchmark pollutant, during the period but the pollutant level of 2023-24 — 94 microgram per cubic metre of air — was still more than 50 per cent higher than the national permissible limit of 60 micrograms. The report, Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 (Clean Air Study 2024), has ranked Kolkata 41st among 46 cities in the list, just above Chennai in terms of air pollution control performance among mega metropolises. The report has ranked cities based on their activities approved under the city action plan earmarked within the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). In a list that included 46 cities with a population of more than a million, Delhi was found to be the best among major metros at 11th position, Bengaluru at 28th position and Mumbai at 32th. Kolkata got the 41st position, while Chennai was at number 45. Howrah was a shade better at 44. Kalyan Rudra, chairman of West Bengal Pollution Control Board, pointed out that major cities face heightened challenges, and questioned the practice of fixing the same ranking yardstick for all the cities despite significant differences between them in context to scale, complexity, and exposure. “For example, Kolkata, close to the southern edge of the Indo Gangetic plain, receives transborder air pollution. How can the same level in parameters be fixed for it compared to cities which generate air pollution,” Rudra pointed out, stating that he has recently raised the issue in a World Bank meeting on air pollution where Union government officials were present. Rudra, however, admitted that Kolkata needs to do away with the highly polluting diesel-driven vehicles to reduce air pollution. He opined that PM2.5 should be emphasised more as it is more toxic, while currently PM10 is considered as the improvement indicator. Abhijit Chatterjee, an air pollution expert with the Bose Institute and adviser to National Clean Air Programme, said “the major sources of PM10 over a city needs to be identified and then the weightage should be set. The distribution of weightage should be based on the city specific and not generalised.” Eight parameters considered “All 130 cities covered under NCAP are assessed based on information submitted under the ranking framework by cities / ULBs (urban local bodies) on PRANA (Portal for Regulation of Air Pollution in Non-Attainment Cities),” reads the report. PRANA is the dashboard to capture progress under the NCAP programme. The report further says that “assessment is done every year and cities are ranked based on the assessment of performance for the period (financial year i.e., 1st April to 31st March) of the preceding financial year. Specific weightage has been assigned for taking control measures in 8 identified sectors”. Biomass and municipal solid waste burning, road dust, vehicular emission and emission from industries are all being given equal weightage of 20 per cent marks each, while dust from construction and demolition waste has been assigned 5 per cent, improvement in PM10 concentrations 2.5 per cent and an equal 2.5 per cent for IEC activities and public awareness. Controlling of other emissions has been given 10 per cent. While major cities slide; Surat in Gujarat is the table-topper among cities with one-million-plus population with a score of 194 followed by Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, and Agra, Uttar Pradesh. “These cities are being awarded for their significant improvements in air quality, achieved through the adoption of various best practices aimed at mitigating air pollution,” proclaims the report. It identified few key activities which made the difference like end-to-end paving on roads, promoting mechanical sweeping, bioremediation of legacy waste, construction and demolition waste, solid waste management, development of the reclaimed land of dumpsite, greenbelt development, intelligent traffic management system and Miyawaki forestation. The report further says that assessment has been done based on submission of a self-assessment report along with supporting documents submitted by urban local bodies. The reports and documents are then subsequently vetted by respective air quality monitoring committees, chaired by respective environment secretaries in environment and finally examined and evaluated by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for ranking Cloud over ranking Among the major cities in the country, Delhi did the best with a score of 181 at the 11th national ranking, while Hyderabad got the 25th position (163.3), Mumbai 28th (159), Bangalore 32nd (155.1), Kolkata 41st (137.8) and Chennai lowest among the metro cities at the 45th position with 101.3 score. The PRANA website shows out of Rs 11,211 crores so far released, the six mentioned major cities got Rs 3,285 crores, nearly 30 per cent, but hardly showed any improvement on ground in air pollution control through utilising just over 60 per cent of the allotted money on average. “The multi-sector action needs massive scaling up in cities like Kolkata to reduce air pollution. But the ranking, which is based on self-reported data from cities, must be transparent and accessible to help validate what is working, not working and the magnitude of change on ground in cities,” said Anumita Roychowdhury, air pollution expert and executive director, research and advocacy, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), India.

• DTE-Hindi

Light Pollution : फैंसी लाइटों से हो रहा प्रकाश प्रदूषण, पेड़ और पक्षि‍यों की बिगड़ रही Life Cycle

शहरों से लेकर गांवों तक, हर जगह तेज रोशनी करने वाली फैंसी लाइट रात के अंधेरे को भले ही दूर कर देती हों, लेकिन इसका बुरा असर समूचे जीव जगत पर पड़ रहा है. पूरी दुनिया पानी, हवा और ध्वनि जनित प्रदूषण के संकट से उबरने में लगी है. मगर, अब प्रकाश प्रदूषण का संकट भी गहरा गया है. वैश्विक स्तर पर चल रही तथाकथित विकास की अंधी दौड़ के कारण धरती पर रात का अंधेरा लगातार कम हो रहा है. इससे उपजे Light Pollution की गंभीरता का अंदाजा इसी बात से लगाया जा सकता है कि इससे पेड़ पौधों में भोजन बनाने के लिए होने वाली प्रकाश संश्लेषण यानी Photosynthesis की अनिवार्य प्रक्रिया प्रभावित हो रही है. इतना ही नहीं, रात के अंधेरे में सक्रिय होने वाले nocturnal animals के जीवन चक्र पर भी बुरा असर पड़ रहा है. अब, प्रकाश प्रदूषण से खतरे की जद में इंसान की सेहत भी आ गई है. पिछले कुछ सालों में इस समस्या पर Western Countries में पुरजोर बहस तेज थी. अब भारत में भी यह समस्या अदालत के संज्ञान में लाई गई है. इसके फलस्वरूप मुंबई के में अदालत के आदेश पर Fancy Lights हटाई जाने लगी है. मुंबई में उतरने लगीं पेड़ों की फैंसी लाइट पर्यावरण पर शोध से जुड़ी संस्था Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) की ओर से प्रकाशित एक रिपोर्ट के अनुसार पूरी दुनिया में 83 फीसदी आबादी किसी न किसी रूप में प्रकाश प्रदूषण से प्रभावित हो गई है. इस समस्या से भारत भी अछूता नहीं है. रिपोर्ट के अनुसार पश्चिमी देशों में प्रकाश प्रदूषण से बचने के लिए कानूनी उपाय किए जाने लगे हैं. इस बीच भारत में भ इस मामले पर न्यायपालिका ने संज्ञान लिया है. इसी का नतीजा है कि इस साल अप्रैल में तेज फैंसी लाइटों से चकाचौंध रहने वाले मुंबई के कुछ इलाकों में पेड़ों पर लगी लाइटें उतारने का सिलसिला शुरू हुआ था. Bombay High Court ने 10 अप्रैल को एक जनहित याचिका पर सुनवाई के दौरान महाराष्ट्र सरकार, बृहन्मुंबई नगर पालिका (BMC), ठाणे नगर पालिका और मीरा भयंदर नगर पालिका को नोटिस जारी कर पेड़ो पर लगाई गई कृत्रिम सजावटी लाइटों के औचित्य पर जवाब तलब किया था. इसके बाद ही इन नगर पालिका क्षेत्रों में पेड़ों से सजावटी लाइटों को हटाने का सिलसिला शुरू हुआ. इसके साथ ही देश में प्रकाश प्रदूषण पर भी बहस तेज हो गई. मुंबई के Social Worker रोहित मनोहर जोशी ने अदालत में यह मामला PIL के माध्यम से पेश किया ह‍ै. इसमें पेड़ों पर लगाई गईं कृत्रिम सजावटी लाइटों को प्रकाश प्रदूषण से जोड़ते हुए कहा है कि‍ इससे प्रकाश संश्लेषण की प्रक्रिया बाध‍ित हो रही है. साथ ही पेड़ों और रात्रिचर जीवों की सेहत को भारी नुकसान हो रहा है. छत्तीसगढ़ के शोध को बनाया आधार याचिकाकर्ता ने प्रकाश प्रदूषण के प्रभाव को साबित करने के लिए अदालत के समक्ष छत्तीसगढ़ में बिलासपुर के गुरू घासीदास विश्वविद्यालय में वैज्ञानिकों की शोध रिपोर्ट का हवाला दिया है. ''Street Light Pollution से पेड़ पौधों की प्रकाश संश्लेषण प्रक्रिया पर पड़ रहे प्रभाव'' शीर्षक वाली शोध रिपोर्ट के मुताबिक रात में कृत्रिम रोशनी की अधिकता के कारण Light Pollution हो रहा है. रिपोर्ट के मुताबिक प्रकाश प्रदूषण से पेड़ पौधों की प्रकाश संश्लेषण प्रक्रिया बाधित होती है. जब पौधे लगातार कृत्रिम प्रकाश के संपर्क में रहते हैं, तब उनकी प्रकाश संश्लेषण के माध्यम से भोजन बनाने की क्षमता बुरी तरह से प्रभावित होती है. इतना ही नहीं, Biological Rhythm Research शीर्षक वाली 2018 में प्रकाशित एक अन्य रिसर्च रिपोर्ट में भी प्रकाश प्रदूषण के जैव जगत पर पड़ने वाले असर की पुष्टि हुई है. शोधकर्ता नीलिमा मेरावी और संतोष कुमार प्रजापति ने रिपोर्ट में बताया कि प्रकाश संश्लेषण की इस प्रक्रिया को ठीक से करने के लिए रात में नैसर्गिक रूप से अंधेरा होना जरूरी है. इसलिए अंधेरे को पेड़ पौधों सहित अन्य जीव जंतुओं की रात में होने वाली स्वाभाविक गतिविधियों के स्रोत के रूप में देखा जाना चाहिए.

• Down To Earth

State of Africa's Environment

Kenya like other African countries is faced with water scarcity and disease burden due to unsafe water use. A 2024 report on the state Africa's environment indicates that poor sanitation and sewage management remains a big challenge for the country

• Down To Earth

Entire Africa is water-insecure, says the 2024 State of Africa’s Environment report

cross Africa, the incidences of violence over water resources increased by around 34 per cent during 2022-23: there were at least 71 such incidents recorded in 2023 compared to 53 in 2022. In 2023, Africa reported the highest number of water-related conflicts and disputes since 2019 – says the 2024 State of Africa’s Environment report, released here today at a media briefing. The briefing was jointly organised by New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and Media for Science, Environment, Health and Agriculture (MESHA). The report is prepared and brought out every year by CSE and Down To Earth, a fortnightly magazine the Centre helps publish. The inaugural edition of the report was launched in 2023 in Nairobi. With its central theme as water, the report covers a wide gamut of related subjects, ranging from water security, urban water poverty, and water-related migration and conflicts, to the disease burden, climate change-induced water scarcity, and the potential of rainwater harvesting to eradicate water poverty in Africa. Speaking at the launch of the report, noted Indian environmental writer and activist and director general of CSE, Sunita Narain, said: “The scarcity of water that is being faced by Africa and other regions of the world is as much about the lack of the resource as its mismanagement. Climate change is adding to the water crisis and heat stress in our world. But climate change is not the reason for the water crisis – it is just an exacerbating factor. Our water crisis is about our inability to build an affordable system of water management for people today.” Speaking about the climate change and water linkages, she added: “Most climate change vulnerable countries are also water-stressed. In fact, our report shows that water stress caused by global warming is going to displace up to 700 million Africans by 2030. Food production will be affected severely – heat and water stress could lead to 6-14 per cent food production decline by 2050.” The other speakers at the event included Dhesigen Naidoo, advisor and climate adaptation lead to the South African Presidential Climate Commission and senior research associate at the Institute for Security Studies; Dr Francis Oremo, senior programme manager at the Institute for Law and Environmental Governance (ILEG); Malesi Shivaji Samson, Executive Director of the Kenya Water and Sanitation Civil Society Network (KEWASNET); Eng Susan Nthamba Masila, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) specialist from Burundi; Clémentine Andre, regional monitoring manager for Sub-Saharan Africa and Middle East and North Africa, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC); and Trishant Dev of CSE’s climate change team. The State of Africa’s Environment report points out that as per the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global warming has been more rapid in Africa than in the rest of the world. Average annual maximum temperatures in northern and southern Africa is likely to be close to 4oC above normal. The Middle East and northern African regions face the greatest expected economic losses from climate-related water scarcity – estimated at between 6 and 14 per cent by 2050. Says Richard Mahapatra, managing editor of Down To Earth and the brain behind the report: “Africa is the world’s youngest urban continent. From being 80 per cent rural in the 1960s, 50 per cent of the continent is urban today. By 2050, at least 24 of Africa’s large cities – in 15 countries – are expected to become water-scarce. Kenya, for instance, faces an unprecedented water crisis in its expanding urban areas: one third of its population lacks access to clean drinking water.” According to Narain and Mahapatra, Africa is richly endowed with rainwater. “Harvesting rain can not only help bolster water supplies, it can also involve the community in managing water, making water everybody’s business. Water harvesting and integrated land-water management is not new to Africa – the continent needs to revive its ‘dying wisdom’,” they say.

• Down To Earth

Water conflicts in Africa surge by 153% over five-year period

The number of water conflicts and disputes, particularly in northern and Sub-Saharan Africa, is increasing, according to a new report released today in Nairobi, Kenya by India-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The report dubbed 2024 State of Africa’s Environment on theme water shows a clear upward trend in the number of water conflicts rising from 28 in 2019 to 71 in 2023 representing an increase of 153.6% over five-year period. The number of conflicts decreased from 28 to 24 from 2019 to 2020. This was a decline of about 14.3%, suggesting a temporary decrease in water-related tensions or improved conflict management. The number of conflicts increased from 24 to 29 in 2021, which was a rise of about 20.8%, indicated a rebound of rising water conflicts. In 2022, the number surged from 29 to 53, marking an approximate increase of 82.8%. The following year saw another rise, with the figure climbing from 53 to 71, which represented an increase of around 34%. While it was a slower rate of increase compared to the previous year, it still showed that the upward trend was continuing. The report links the rising cases to growing water scarcity as the region face severe increased competition for water resources. The data also indicates a troubling trend of increasing water conflicts over the period, suggesting that issues related to water resources are becoming more contentious and widespread. From 2004 to 2013, 20 countries reported 68 incidents of conflicts over water resources. Of these, five countries—Somalia (12 incidents), Ethiopia (7), Egypt (6), Kenya (6), and Sudan (6)—accounted for over 54% of the total. Between 2014 and 2023, 32 countries reported 295 incidents of conflicts over water resources. Five countries accounted for more than 54% of these conflicts: Somalia with 41 incidents, South Africa with 36, Sudan with 32, Kenya with 31, and Burkina Faso with 22. “With increase in geopolitical tensions, water has been considered as a weapon of war,” the report stated, citing instances in Burkina Faso, where at least 32 water facilities were destroyed during January to May in 2022, impacting nearly 300,000 people targeting attacks ranged from direct hits on water points and water trucks, purposeful contamination of water resources to sabotaging public water network’s generators. In South Africa, unrest due to inadequate safe water and sanitation is escalating, with ongoing vandalism of water infrastructure severely impacting the Eastern Cape municipality, according to the country's water and sanitation department. “Incidences of vandalism of the local pump station at Fort Beaufort and surrounding areas were reported that left the residents without the supply of water. These incidents over the years indicate a link with climate change and water-related violence.” The report referenced data sources to emphasize the urgent need for improving access to basic water services in the continent. It also highlighted that disrupting civilians' access to water has evolved from being a mere consequence of conflict to becoming a deliberate weapon of war, representing a troubling and unacceptable escalation in violence that must be addressed. Water-driven migration The report's analysis showed that, political instability, chronic poverty and inequality, and climate change exacerbate water-driven migration across the continent. According to data from the International Organization for Migration, the report projects that by 2050, approximately 200 million people will be classified as "environmental migrants," displaced by environmental factors such as extreme water events. The report highlighted that the drylands of Ghana, Kenya, and Namibia are characterized by unpredictable water supply and high temperatures. It identifies several factors contributing to the stress in these areas, escalating aridity and soil degradation, poorly planned development interventions, rapid population growth, persistent poverty, inadequate communication infrastructure, and isolation from national centers of power. These conditions, it says, strain livelihoods dependent on natural resources, compelling communities to migrate. Citing sources such as the IPCC, the report noted that most mobility influenced by environmental change remains localized. For example, land degradation in Ghana reduced agricultural incomes by $4.2 billion between 2006 and 2015, contributing to a 5.4% increase in the national poverty rate in 2015. In Kenya, environmental and land degradation has heightened mobility, with habitat fragmentation, reduced grazing areas for livestock, and increased stocking rates being key factors driving vegetation loss in the country's rangelands.

• Down To Earth

Nairobi, Mombasa among 25 African cities facing water scarcity

A new report by the Centre for Science and Environment India titled ‘The State of Africa’s Environment Report 2024’, which covered 25 cities on the continent, projects worsening conditions in the next three decades if drastic action is not executed. According to the report, more than 16 million of the Kenyan population relies on untreated and unsafe water sources, such as ponds, shallow wells, rivers, and lakes, for drinking water—a situation that is dire for the urban poor. Experts have now attributed water poverty in urban areas, particularly slums, to low supply, high demand, and poor water management planning. This situation is mainly catalyzed by rural-urban migration, which has accelerated the population density in cities and towns in the country. “Kenya is facing an unprecedented water crisis in its expanding urban areas like rural areas. Kenya is lagging in delivering water to its 50 million people, with at least a third of the population lacking access to clean drinking water,” the report noted. Speaking during the launch of the report, on Monday in Nairobi, Malesi Shivaji, CEO of Kenya Water and Civil Society Network (KEWASNET), noted that the current water system infrastructure is incapable of serving the accelerating number of people in urban centers in the country. “There has been a dependence on the same infrastructure 60 years down the line. The same pipes that were there 40 years ago are the same pipes that are supplying water to the 50 Million people in the country,” he said. Furthermore, he noted that the lack of proper and sufficient sanitary stations, such as toilets, in cities has increased the risk of water pollution, thus exposing residents to waterborne diseases such as cholera. “The lack of sanitation station has led to cases of open defecation, leading to water pollution,” he stated. Francis Oremo, Senior Programme Manager, Institute of Law and Environmental Governance, Nairobi, pointed out that lack of sufficient investment in water harvesting infrastructures in the country and Africa at large has greatly contributed to the shortage of water, despite the continent having abundant water sources. Advertisement. Scroll to continue reading. “There is no room for business as usual we have to manage our water very well or we shall lose everything,” he stated. According to Sunita Narain, who is the Director General of the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) India, sustainable methods such as water recycling and incorporation of technology should be heavily executed to improve the accessibility and affordability of water on the continent. “If we can use technology in other sectors I think it’s very possible to integrate technology in water recycling, If technology, water supply, and waste management are affordable, it will be sustainable. If you improve water security people’s lives will be improved. Reinvent our sewage system so that it is more affordable,” she stated. The report has thus recommended measures to counter the water scarcity menace in Kenya, which include desalination of seawater, groundwater exploitation, reservoir construction, interbasin water transfer, and domestic virtual trade. Between the years 1990 and 2020, the number of African cities skyrocketed from 3300 to 7600, consequently increasing the urban population on the continent to 500 million.

• Sustainable Food Systems

जिस बीमारी से हर साल जाती है 50 लाख जानें, UN उसके खात्मे के लिए करने जा रही बड़ी बैठक, जानिए इसके बारे में सबकुछ

मेडिसीन की दुनिया में एंटीबायोटिक्स की खोज सबसे क्रांतिकारी मानी जाती है. इसकी खोज 1928 में हुई. ये उस दौर की कहानी है जब शरीर में लगी एक छोटी सी चोट भी किसी इंसान के लिए जानलेवा साबित होती थी. देखते ही देखते एंटीबायोटिक्स हर जख्म हर मर्ज की दवा बन गई. इसकी खोज ने इंफेक्शन्स से होने वाली मौतों को 50% से घटाकर 10-15% कर दिया. लेकिन अब यही दवाएं दुनिया के सामने स्वास्थ्य चुनौती बन कर खड़ी हैं. 1960 के दशक के बाद से, बैक्टीरिया पर एंटीबायोटिक दवाएं बेअसर होती जा रही है. जिसे एंटीबायोटिक रेजिस्टेंस कहा जाता है. दुनिया भर के वैज्ञानिक, सरकारें चेतावनी दे रही हैं कि एंटीबायोटिक रेजिस्टेंस अगला बड़ा स्वास्थ्य संकट बनता जा रहा है. ये एक ऐसा अनदेखा खतरा बनता जा रहा है जो वर्ल्ड हेल्थ ऑर्गेनाइजेशन के मुताबिक हर साल 50 लाख जिंदगियां लील रहा है. यूएन में होने जा रही है बैठक पर इस स्थिति में हम पहुंचे कैसे? जवाब है- एंटीबायोटिक का जरूरत से ज्यादा या गलत इस्तेमाल. जिसके चलते एंटीबॉयोटिक रेजिस्टेंस हो सकता है. समस्या कितनी गंभीर हो चुकी है वो इसका अंदाजा इस बात से लगाया जा सकता है कि सितंबर 26, 2024 को यूएन जनरल असेंबली में एंटीमाइक्रोबियल रेजिस्टेंस पर चर्चा के लिए बैठक बुलाई गई है. ये मीटिंग न्यूयॉर्क में होने वाली है. दुनियाभर के टॉप लीडर्स, स्वास्थ्य एक्सपर्ट इस चुनौती से निपटने के रास्ते तलाशने पर विचार करने वाले हैं. ये बैठक ऐसे समय होगी जब हाल ही में रिसर्च जर्नल लैंसेट में छपी एक स्टडी में दावा किया गया है कि एंटीबायोटिक रेजिस्टेंस के चलते साल 2050 तक करीब 3 करोड़ 90 लाख अपनी जान गंवा सकते हैं. इसमें ये भी बताया गया है कि साल 1990-2021 के बीच हर साल 10 लाख से भी ज्यादा लोगों ने अपनी जान गंवाई. एंटीबायोटिक्स रेजिस्टेंस कब होती है? एंटोबायोटिक्स का काम होता है हमारे शरीर में बैक्टीरिया को मारने का. लेकिन हद से ज्यादा इस्तेमाल से ये दांव उल्टा पड़ सकता है. एंटीबायोटिक्स बैक्टीरिया को मारने के लिए उसके किसी खास प्रोटीन से जाकर बंध जाता है. फिर अंदर घुस कर रोग फैलाने वाले बैक्टीरिया का खात्मा कर देता है. एंटीबायोटिक्स अपना काम करता है तो ऐसा नहीं है कि बैक्टीरिया हाथ धरे बैठा रहता है. वो भी एंटीबायोटिक्स के असर को कम करने की काट ढूंढने लगता है. कोई भी अपनी जान बचाने के लिए हाथ पैर तो मारता ही है न. बैक्टीरिया बचाव का जो सबसे आम तरीका अपनाते हैं वो है- म्यूटेशन. जिसकी वजह से एंटीबायोटिक बैक्टीरिया पर हमला नहीं कर पाता. यह ठीक वैसा ही है कि जैसे बैक्टीरिया ने ताले बदल दिए हों और एंटीबायोटिक वही पुरानी चाबी से बैक्टीरिया का दरवाज़ा खोलने की कोशिश करता है. नतीजतन, यह एंटीबायोटिक दवाएं उन पर बेअसर हो जाती है. जब ऐसा होता है तो मामूली इंफेक्शंस भी जल्द ठीक नहीं होते. न्यूयॉर्क की बैठक का एजेंडा क्या है? आने वाले वर्षों में एंटीबायोटिक रेजिस्टेंस को लेकर हम तिहरे खतरे की ओर बढ़ रहे हैं- एक, जिन एंटीबायोटिक्स के बारे में हम आज जानते हैं वे तेजी से अप्रभावी होंगी; दूसरा कोई नई एंटीबायोटिक्स उपलब्ध नहीं होंगी और आखिरी बात ये कि सभी के लिए इन दवाओं तक पहुंच की गंभीर आवश्यकता होगी. इन तीन पहलुओं पर ही बैठक में बातचीत होनी है. एक्सपर्ट इस बात पर विचार करेंगे कि शोधकर्ताओं और कंपनियों को कैसे आश्वस्त किया जाए कि नई एंटीबायोटिक दवाएं बनाना उनके लायक है. विश्व बैंक की तरफ से जारी एक रिपोर्ट के मुताबिक एंटीमाइक्रोबियल रेजिस्टेंस के इलाज की भागदौड़ में 2030 तक और 2.4 करोड़ लोग गरीबी के गर्त में समा सकते हैं. इतना ही नहीं बढ़ते प्रतिरोध की वजह से वैश्विक अर्थव्यवस्था को भी भारी नुकसान उठाना पड़ेगा. संयुक्त राष्ट्र पर्यावरण कार्यक्रम यानी UNEP की रिपोर्ट “ब्रेसिंग फॉर सुपरबग” की मानें तो अगर अभी ध्यान न दिया गया तो वैश्विक अर्थव्यवस्था को इससे अगले कुछ वर्षों में हर साल 281.1 लाख करोड़ रूपए से ज्यादा का नुकसान उठाना पड़ सकता है. फिर बचने का तरीका क्या है? वैसे भी एंटीबायोटिक रेजिस्टेंस हमेशा हमारे साथ ही रहने वाला है. क्योंकि बैक्टीरिया हमेशा एंटीबायोटिक्स से निपटने का तरीका ढूंढ ही लेंगे. लेकिन एक्सपर्ट इस बात से आश्वस्त है कि इसे बड़े स्तर पर फैलने से हमेशा सीमित किया जा सकता है. इसका एक तरीका है मौजूदा एंटीबायोटिक दवाओं को मोडिफाई करना और दूसरा है नई दवाएं विकसित करना. पर दोनों ही ऑप्शन में कोई खास प्रगति होती हुई दिखाई नहीं दे रही है. सवाल है कि अगर समस्या इतनी गंभीर है, और मेडिकल फील्ड में हुई इतनी तरक्की के बावजूद दुनिया को जिन नई एंटीबायोटिक दवाओं की सख्त जरूरत है, उन्हें बनाना इतना आसान क्यों नहीं है? इसका जवाब आंशिक रूप से एक दवा की खोज में आने वाली चुनौतियां और इसमें लगने वाले खर्च में छुपा है. आसान नहीं नई एंटीबायोटिक दवाओं का बनना बैक्टीरिया को कौन से केमिकल मार सकते हैं, इसे ढूंढना आसान है. कई वैज्ञानिक इसकी खोज में लगे भी हुए हैं. पर असली चिंता और चुनौती है ऐसे केमिकल की खोज करना जो बैक्टीरिया का तो खात्मा करे ही साथ ही इंसानों की सेहत से भी कोई समझौता न हो. और अगर यहां बात बन भी गई तो फिर क्लिनिकल ट्रायल्स से लेकर इस्तेमाल की मंजूरी लेने में कई कई साल लग जाते हैं. कुल जमा बात है कि एक दवा की खोज में 10 से 20 साल तो लगने ही हैं. नई दवा बनाने का रास्ता हद से ज्यादा लंबा तो है ही साथ ही इसकी भी कोई गारंटी नहीं है कि सफलता ही हासिल हो. और जब एक काम की सफलता दर को लेकर इतनी अनिश्चितता भरी हो तो जाहिर है इसमें खर्च भी ज्यादा होगा. जो कोई करना नहीं चाहता. यहीं से शुरू होती है दूसरी चुनौती. बड़ी कंपनियों भी नहीं दे रही साथ बड़ी दवा कंपनियाँ एंटीबायोटिक रिसर्च में निवेश करने से कतराती हैं क्योंकि उन्हें इसमें कोई आकर्षक बाजार नहीं दिखता. जहां नुकसान कम मुनाफा ज्यादा हो. नई दवा बनेगी भी तो जरूरत के लिहाज से ही इसे मार्केट में इस्तेमाल के लिए बेचा जाएगा. CSE यानी सेंटर फॉर साइंस एंड एनवायरमेंट की रिपोर्ट के मुताबिक अधिकांश बड़ी दवा कंपनियाँ जो पहले एंटीबायोटिक दवा को विकसित कर रही थीं, उन्होंने इससे अपने हाथ पीछे खींच लिए हैं. उल्टा अपना सारा ध्यान कैंसर, डायबीटिज जैसी दुर्लभ बीमारियों पर फोकस कर दिया है. डायबीटिज, बल्ड प्रेशर जैसी पुरानी बीमारियों के लिए सस्ती दवाएं अभी भी कंपनियों को बड़ा मुनाफा दिला सकती हैं. क्योंकि इन्हें बहुत से लोग लंबी समय तक खाते हैं और कुछ को तो इन दवाओं पर अपनी बाकी की जिंदगी बितानी होती है. इसके उल्ट एंटीबायोटिक दवाओं का इस्तेमाल बहुत थोड़े समय के लिए किया जाता है. विश्व स्वास्थ्य संगठने के डेटाबेस के मुताबिक, वैश्विक स्तर पर जिन 297 एंटीबायोटिक दवाओं पर रिसर्च किया जा रहा है, उनमें से केवल 77 का ही क्लिनिकल टेस्ट चल रहा है. इसकी तुलना अगर हम कैंसर के करीब 10,000, न्यूरोसाइकिएट्रिक कंडीशन्स के 1800, ब्लड और इम्यून डिसऑर्डर्स के लगभग 1,500 क्लिनिकल टेस्ट से करें तो स्थिति काफी चिंताजनक दिखती है.