• Climate Change and Green Economy

At Bonn, talks hit climate finance roadblock ahead of Baku summit

Half way through the two week Bonn Climate Change Meeting, observers said there has been no progress on talks to define a new collective quantified goal (NCQG) , which is expected to define the contours of discussion at the next UN climate conference, COP29, at Baku, Azerbaijan. The US has repeated its stance on how contributing to the new fund, meant to replace the existing goal of $100 billion per year, should be voluntary. The Arab group, Cuba and African nations have called for determining the quantum of the new goal. The agenda of COP29 this November is to negotiate a new financial goal to be set from the floor of $100 billion for the post-2025 period. This is expected to help developing countries transition to a low-carbon future. “Proper progress is urgently needed at the UNFCCC climate negotiations this week as, with each day passing, the talks are turning into a cesspit of inaction,” said an update by the Climate Action Network on Monday. According to Loss and Damage Collaboration, a climate policy group that is tracking the negotiations, the US has argued that NCQG is separate from the provisions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. This weakens the provision in the convention and the Paris Agreement that developed nations ought to deliver climate finance to developing countries, experts said. They also said developed countries are urging to expand the number of donors by including emerging economies and limiting beneficiaries to least developed countries. The African group of countries have demanded discussions on what will be the quantum of this new goal. “What we are focusing on is the $1.3 trillion (demand) that was put forward by developing countries and how we’re going to deliver,” Ambassador Mohamed Nasr, Egypt’s chief climate negotiator said on behalf of the Africa group on Saturday during a meeeting on the NCQG. “At the end of week one we are still far from convergence on an ambitious finance target. Multiple options are on the table, and developed countries are still making bad faith demands to open up discussions like the contributor base, despite Article 9 of the Paris Agreement being clear that finance must flow from developed to developing countries. The G77 is so far united in its asks and must scale up pressure in week two to move the need ahead of COP 29,” said Avantika Goswami, programme manager - climate change, Centre For Science And Environment.

• Sustainable Habitat

New Government’s Agenda: Plan them cool

As urban India turns into a heat trap, the government must focus on improving cities’ liveability Cities are fast becoming hotspots for environmental action. As they grow to cater to the needs of the expanding urban population, there is an increase in motorisation, concretisation, proliferation of slums and shrinking green and blue spaces. In a warming world, cities suffer due to the urban heat island effect, flooding, water scarcity, improper solid waste management, pollution of air and water and overall deteriorating liveability. The Centre has taken measures to combat these impacts. For instance, Union Budget 2024-25 allocated Rs 10,400 crore for the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Smart Cities Mission; Rs 21,336 crore for metro rail projects; Rs 5,000 crore for the Swachh Bharat Mission; and Rs 80,761 crore for the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY). The 15th Finance Commission of India and the National Clean Air Programme have also proposed more funds to urban local bodies to tackle some problems. However, action so far has been slow and is not quite outcome-oriented. Sustainable growth of cities needs measurable indicators that bring tangible results: HOUSING SUPPORT PMAY or the Housing for All mission has led to the development of millions of affordable housing units. However, these units may not provide thermal comfort, given the lack of criteria for thermal performance. This is confirmed in a 2021 study by Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The Affordable Rental Housing Complexes scheme, a sub-programme under PMAY introduced in 2020, comes with great opportunity to align the rental housing stock with national thermal comfort goals. Provisions of the scheme, such as the technology innovation grant to facilitate adoption of innovative, sustainable, green and disaster-resilient technologies and building materials, must be linked to better thermal performance. The criterion for this grant is speedy, innovative and sustainable construction, which is quite open-ended and less binding. Here is where thermal comfort standards for different climate zones become crucial. Currently, no housing scheme has parameters to ensure access to important infrastructure such as schools, healthcare facilities or public transport, says a 2021 CSE report, “Mass housing and liveability”. Even in slum rehabilitation projects, most times, beneficiaries are relocated to unsuitable peripheral locations that compromise liveability. This model results in creation of more slums and vacant housing at the periphery, CSE notes in another 2021 report titled “Towards affordable and sustainable rental housing”. Housing schemes must focus on in situ rehabilitation. Alternatively, a balanced scorecard approach, in which sites with adequate access to infrastructure are prioritised, can help decision-makers ensure future housing stock has the crucial liveability parameters. Further, affordable housing projects, and cities in general, are yet to reap the benefits of environmental services like nature-based decentralised wastewater treatment, in situ solid waste management and solar rooftop. This is despite incentives—for instance, under the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana, independent homeowners can avail a subsidy of Rs 30,000 per kW and group housing societies can avail Rs 18,000 per kW. Such benefits must be mandatory for affordable housing projects. HEAT MANAGEMENT IN CITIES The urban heat island effect has become widespread, affecting most cities and leading to increased heat exposure. This not only poses health risks to people, but could create a vicious cycle where air-conditioning becomes a quick fix for thermal comfort and ejects more heat into ambient environment. The government has initiatives such as the India Cooling Action Plan, 2019; energy conservation building codes; National Mission for Sustainable Habitat 2.0; addendums to Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines, 2014; and Model Building Bye-Laws, 2016. However, heat management in cities has not seen comprehensive action so far. In an analysis of 37 heat action plans, Delhi-based think tank Centre for Policy Research reveals that focus is mainly on disaster preparedness and emergency response. Plans do not identify vulnerable groups and lack local bearing. CSE also analysed four cities (Jaipur, Delhi, Pune and Kolkata) of various sizes and in different climate zones to understand how land surface temperatures (LSTs) may be affected by the height and density of buildings and roads, roof materials, natural green cover and water-bodies. The study revealed that cities can mitigate LSTs by as much as 10°C by increasing green spaces with thick canopy trees, reducing street exposure to the sun, enabling mutual shading and proper orientation of buildings and using materials that do not trap heat. Cities must aim to increase their green space in line with the World Health Organization recommendations of at least 9 sq m per capita. URDPFI guidelines recommend a larger green space of 12-18 sq m per capita. Compact development with mid-rise buildings; heat-resilient streets that use water elements like fountains, swales and rain gardens; shading elements; reflective materials; and cool and green roofs can help enhance microclimate and improve thermal comfort to a great extent. All this must be captured in cities’ building by-laws. Heat mitigation must also move beyond disaster response during a heatwave. Cities must assess vulnerability for prioritised and localised action, such as retrofits in certain areas. Global adaptation funds and current fiscal support to urban local bodies could be leveraged to enable these actions. Heat management needs to be institutionalised with city climate change cells, which are currently being set up, as a nodal agency.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

New Government’s Agenda: Look beyond dust

Reinvent National Clean Air Programme to focus on fine particulate matter and trans-boundary pollution Only a year is left for the polluted cities of India to clean up their act. In January 2019, the Union environment ministry launched a comprehensive policy framework, the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), to improve air quality in 131 cities and urban agglomerations that consistently reported high pollution levels. The aim was to lower the concentration of particulate matter in these cities by up to 40 per cent by 2025-26, from the 2019 level. To enable implementation, NCAP promised performance-linked funding—a first-of-its-kind strategy to curb air pollution. A massive Rs 19,711 crore was earmarked for the programme. By 2023, as stated in the ministry’s Annual Report 2023-24, all the 131 cities showed improvement in the levels of PM10 (particulate matter with a diameter of 10 microns or less). But have these cities managed to reduce air pollution effectively, which can cause a host of illnesses from lung cancer to cardiovascular diseases to low birth weight and lead to premature death? There are questions around this, and let me tell you why. Of the Rs 19,711 crore earmarked under NCAP, Rs 16,539 crore is for 49 cities and urban agglomerations, each housing more than 1 million people; the remaining Rs 3,172 crore has been earmarked for 82 cities with smaller populations, as per the ministry’s Annual Report 2023-24. However, an analysis of this data shows poor utilisation of funds—an indicator of ineffective implementation. Till December 2023, the 49 million-plus cities received Rs 8,357.51 crore, but spent only 70 per cent— Rs 5,835.03 crore—of it. The 82 smaller cities received Rs 1,292.5 crore, and spent only 37.5 per cent, or Rs 480.92 crore, of it. This indicates the scale and speed of action to tackle air pollution are yet to catch up with the target. The metrics used for judging progress in air pollution abatement are also questionable. For instance, NCAP was originally planned to reduce concentrations of both PM10 and PM2.5. But in practice, only PM10—the coarser dust particles—is considered as the basis for assessing air quality improvement. This has diverted attention and investments towards dust control, while PM2.5, the more harmful particles emitted largely from combustion sources, remains neglected. Analysis of the spending under NCAP shows that as much as 64 per cent of the funds have gone into activities such as paving and widening roads, repairing potholes, water sprinkling and buying mechanical sweepers. By comparison, funds allocated to reduce emissions from combustion sources, responsible for PM2.5, are a lot less—only 14.51 per cent of the total funding under NCAP has been spent on controlling biomass burning, 12.63 per cent on tackling vehicular pollution and a mere 0.61 per cent on industrial pollution control. While cities under NCAP need to only demonstrate improvement in PM10 levels to access funds, under a parallel programme of the Union environment ministry called Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan (SVS), cities are ranked based on action taken in different sectors along with PM10 reduction. These include policy measures to reduce vehicular and industrial emissions, emissions from biomass and municipal solid waste, road dust and dust from construction and demolition waste, and also on public awareness about these policies. But performance based on PM10 reduction under NCAP and ranking based on action taken under SVS often do not match. While both the assessment strategies for NCAP and SVS are steps in the right direction, transformative changes are possible only if the method of tracking progress and compliance is stronger. So here are a few suggestions for the new government to achieve clean air. Use PM2.5 as benchmark: PM2.5 is a more relevant health indicator to assess improvement in air quality. Besides, the impact of policy action on PM10 levels is difficult to establish, as it is highly impacted by wind-blown dust, loose sub-soil from farmlands, and is released by specific sources like mining and construction. Choose the right metrics: Since under NCAP, PM10 is used as the indicator to measure progress in air pollution, focus is on dust control. Key combustion sources like transport and industry, which are the major sources of PM2.5, do not receive priority for developing mitigation pathways. Besides, most industrial sources and power plants are located outside municipal boundaries, and thus remain beyond the ambit of city action plans. Small- and medium-scale units that exist in the non-confirming areas of cities are often not considered. Some information on industrial pollution control measures get reported only if a city is an industrial city or town. Even then, information on steps to accelerate transition to clean fuels and technologies is scanty. Similarly, often progress reports of cities are inadequate on the indicators set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for improvement in on-road emissions management, old vehicle phase out, vehicle electrification, public transport improvement and non-motorised transport. These strategies are not well developed quantitatively and qualitatively for implementation, funding and reporting. Link policy action with air quality improvement: Currently, there is no way to establish the link between policy action and improvement in pollution levels. Cities ranked high under NCAP for improved PM10 levels do not necessarily rank high under SVS for taking policy action. Similarly, cities that score high for good policy action under SVS can be the worst performing cities under NCAP for not improving PM10 level. An assessment by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Delhi, shows that in 2022-23, Guntur city of Andhra Pradesh and Angul town of Odisha were among the best in their respective city categories for taking good action under SVS, but were worst performers under NCAP for not improving PM10 levels. In 2022, Lucknow was among the top performers for good action under SVS but in 2023, it was among the worst performers under NCAP. This needs to be fixed.

• Water Programme

New Government’s Agenda: Think long-term

India needs continued emphasis on flagship programmes, aligned to long-term planning that focusses on water security and circular economy in a climate-risked era India has made substantial progress in creating infrastructure for water supply and sanitation over the past decade. At present, as many as five schemes and programmes are being undertaken nationally in mission mode to sustain the country’s recently achieved open defecation-free (ODF) status, ensure solid and liquid waste management, keep the rivers clean, conserve water for the future and supply drinking water to every house. These include Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), Mission Amrit Sarovar, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), and the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). Their successful implementation can help the country reach the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal on safe water and sanitation by the target year of 2030. Researchers from Delhi-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) travelled the length and breadth of the country to assess the performance and implementation of some of the schemes at the ground level. There are good and bad stories. Let’s start with Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin (SBM-G), whose objective is to achieve universal sanitation coverage, sustain it and improve the level of cleanliness in villages. About 114.5 million toilets have been built under SBM-G since the launch of the mission in 2014, as per government data released in February 2024. Under SBM, the government has promoted construction of toilets with dual-pit honeycomb structure. In this structure, one pit gets filled at a time. Once it is filled, the toilet is connected to another pit. While the second pit gets filled, the sludge in the first pit gets degraded into manure that can be directly reused in fields. While the government has been making people aware about the benefits of degraded sludge, the purpose is defeated if people do not use it. The new government should incentivise the use of degraded faecal sludge. Local governments like village panchayats that enforce reuse plans should be provided incentives. Since toilets that do not follow the recommended design lead to partial digestion of faecal sludge, documentation and dissemination of best practices of toilet construction should be done extensively. Management of wastewater discharged from the washing area, bathroom and kitchen is another integral component of SBM-G. Rural households with functional taps get 55 litres per capita of water daily. Experts estimate that about 70 per cent of this is converted into greywater. The mission prioritises greywater management using simple techniques such as soak pits and kitchen garden. CSE researchers found greywater flowing into open drains and polluting ponds and other waterbodies in several villages. The new government must ensure that greywater is managed on site or near the source. MAKE SOURCES SUSTAINABLE Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) is another flagship programme that envisions “to provide safe and adequate drinking water through individual household tap connections by 2024 to all households in rural India”. Since the launch of the programme in 2019, an impressive 76 per cent of the 193 million households in the rural areas have been connected to taps, as per the JJM dashboard accessed on May 17, 2024. The government must now ensure that the programme does not meet the fate of previous such programmes. As many as six rural water supply programmes, launched since Independence, failed within years as the sources were unsustainable. JJM, thus, plans to focus on protecting or recharging the water sources, which is mainly groundwater, through measures such as water conservation, rainwater harvesting and recharge and reuse through greywater management. It should take the following measures to ensure that water supplied from the tap is safe and sustainable. (i) Map the aquifer at local levels. Since 89 per cent of India’s water sources are groundwater dependent, mapping of the recharge and discharge areas should be done at the district and sub-district levels. Groundwater board and the rural departments should develop the discharge and recharge zones together. Communities should be part of this exercise to make use of their local knowledge about the quality of the soil and the geomorphic features. (ii) Add features on sustainability to the JJM dashboard. Currently, the dashboard has village-level data on the contaminants in the drinking water supply. It also needs to display sites of groundwater recharge or rainwater harvesting, especially if the drinking water source is groundwater-dependent. Details of the design and the cost of the recharge project should be displayed. Measuring the impact of the recharge projects, engaging local communities for monitoring of groundwater and budgeting the available water is key to sustainability. (iii) Ensure sustainability of surface water sources. Since JJM focuses on using surface water in areas where groundwater is contaminated or scarce, there is a need to ensure that the water sources are clean, which again means treating greywater for reuse or safe disposal into open waterbodies.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Government-PCB push for smokeless 'chullahs'

The state environment department and the pollution control board plan to push a transition to smokeless chullahs in households to cut carbon emission, state environment minister Gulam Rabbani said at a programme on Monday. Smokeless chullahs run on fossil fuels like coal and kerosene but the emission is estimated to be 60 to 70 per cent less compared to conventional cooking modes. The chairman of the state pollution control board, Kalyan Rudra, said they would soon initiate a pilot study in several urban and rural areas with The Energy Research Institute (TERI) to assess in detail the impact of mass-scale use of smokeless chullahs on the overall emission status in those regions and would finalise the state’s strategy based on the findings. “We plan to give smokeless chullahs to all fossil fuel users in these areas and then see the impact,” said the official. “Domestic emission is a major cause of climate change in our state and we plan to aggressively pursue the transition to smokeless chullahs, which curb emissions to a large extent,” said minister Rabbani. Rabbani also spoke of achieving a “net zero status” on emission in Bengal. “Net zero” refers to the balance between the volume of greenhouse gases produced and the volume that is removed from the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and others warm up the atmosphere and trigger a range of climatic impacts, from severe heat waves to high-intensity cyclones. Environment department officials pointed out that the transition would require around ₹4,000 crore and they were exploring World Bank, global climate funds and corporate sources for funds. “According to our estimate, nearly 1.1 crore families in the state use fossil fuels, such as various types of coals and solid products derived from coal, for cooking. We will target these families (in the push for smokeless chullahs),” Rudra said, adding they had already arranged for smokeless chullahs for nearly 4,000 families. “Our initial study shows that nearly 60 to 70 per cent of the emission can be curtailed with smokeless chullahs.” In the Glasgow climate summit in 2021, India had announced that it would strive to achieve the “net zero” status by 2070. “Introducing mass-scale smokeless chullahs is a step in the right direction but we need to supplement it with gas ovens and then finally electric heaters,” said Anumita Roy Choudhury of the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), which is playing a role in preparing a climate action plan for Bengal.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Air quality in summer stayed poor but govt yet to spell action plan

The Capital is yet to see a summer action plan against air pollution despite the city recording an air quality index in the “poor” or “very poor” category in 37 out of the last 102 days (nearly 36%) since March 1. The summer action plan was introduced by the Delhi government in each of the last two summers to tackle dust and other summer-related pollutants. Government officials said that there was a delay in announcing a new plan this year due to the recently held Lok Sabha elections and for which the model code of conduct was in place. However, this year’s plan is likely to be out soon, they added. HT looked at the Central Pollution Control Board’s (CPCB’s) air quality index (AQI) data from March 1 onwards, when temperature is high and dust becomes a significant pollutant, leading to a rise in the PM 10 concentration. Gases such as ozone, carbon monoxide and nitric oxide also become prominent pollutants at this time of the year, when meteorological conditions are otherwise favourable. Data showed that each of the four months of March, April, May and June (till June 10) have been worse than the corresponding period last year, recording a higher average AQI and more “poor” or “very poor” days during this period. The average AQI in March this year was 176 while it was 170 last March. It was 182 this April as against 180 last April. May recorded a significantly worse average AQI of 223, as compared to 171 last summer. In the first 10 days of June, the average AQI so far is 203, up from last year’s corresponding period, when it was 150. CPCB classifies an AQI between 0-50 as “good”, between 51 and 100 as “satisfactory”, between 101 and 200 as “moderate”, between 201 and 300 as “poor”, between 301 and 400 as “very poor”, and over 400 as “severe”. Data also showed that Delhi recorded “poor” or “very poor” air quality on 37 days this summer – five in March, seven in April, 20 in May and five so far this month. In comparison, the figure was 30 for the corresponding period, with the highest, 12, in April. The Delhi government told HT that Delhi’s environment minister Gopal Rai will hold a meeting with the forest and environment department on Tuesday to finalise a plan for this summer. “The delay was mostly on account of the recent elections. The model code of conduct was also in place. Now that it is lifted, the plan will be out soon,” a government official said on condition of anonymity. Last year, Rai had started holding meetings with the departments of the Delhi government from April onwards and a 14-point summer action plan was launched by Delhi chief minister Arvind Kejriwal on May 1. The plan had short-term, medium-term and long-term measures to tackle sources such as dust pollution, industrial pollution, open burning and solid waste management, with the government deploying 84 mechanised road sweepers, 609 water sprinklers, 185 anti-smog guns, along with patrolling teams – both during the day and night to keep a tab on pollution sources in Delhi. In 2022, the plan was introduced on April 12 and the 14-point plan focused on road dust and burning of waste, both in the open and at landfill sites. Prior to that, the government had only been releasing action plans for air pollution in the winter. “We discussed the problem of air pollution with the departments concerned and came to a conclusion that in order for the winter action plan to be effective, a constructive summer action plan is also required,” Rai had said. Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director, research and advocacy at the Centre for Science and Environment, said seasonal-specific action plans target the sources that are unique to that season, which in this case is mainly dust. “This helps to take emergency action to some extent. We need such plans in place, as this has been a difficult summer, particularly a dry one, in which dust and ozone can be prominent pollutants. At the same time, it is important that the government focuses on round-the-year action,” she said.

• Director General Office

Agenda in the time of climate change

As you read this, India will have a new-old government for the next five years. In my view, the agenda for the next government is the old one, but with a fundamental difference. This must be India’s agenda for development in and for the age of climate change. There is also the fact that the list of priority action areas remains the same. We have unfinished business when it comes to virtually everything — from energy to water and sanitation to food and nutrition to, of course, health and education. We know that the last government had schemes in place and budgets allocated for all these issues. But we also know that ensuring the welfare and well-being of people is a work in progress. During this election, as journalists fanned out to listen to the opinions of voters, we heard that unemployment was a major concern; lack of clean drinking water and sanitation topped the agenda; the energy crisis was still wicked as the price of the liquefied petroleum gas cylinder was unaffordable and electricity unreliable. Farmers are still distressed. So, a lot of work still needs to be done, and in areas that the last government said it had checked off on its to-do list. This should not come as a surprise. India is a vast country, with a massive deficit in governance. The last mile for any government scheme is about making sure that it reaches people — not once but every time. This is now combined with the impact of climate change where every day some or the other part of the country is being battered by at least one extreme weather event. This has huge implications for development programmes — unseasonal rain and extreme weather lead to more drought, flood, and loss of livelihood, putting an additional strain on the resources of the government. This is why the future agenda must recognise that the imperative of development is about scale, speed, and imagination, which takes into account the need to do development differently. We need a new imagination in the design of development schemes. For long, governments have been caught between a welfare approach — which is often dismissed as a handout — and a capitalistic minimum-government approach. In my view, this age of climate risk needs a new narrative. The government needs to rework and re-engineer development so that it is inclusive, affordable and, so, sustainable. This means re-imagining the way we work in almost every sphere — from the supply of clean water, so that it is not resource- or capital-intensive, to the access to energy so that it is clean but, most importantly, affordable. This will require changes in design and then in delivery. We need a new development paradigm that can work for the planet, but for this, it needs to work for every last person. What is important to note is that in most cases, the government has schemes and budgets. What we need is to learn from what is working and what is not. We need transformational action; and for this we need to ensure implementation -- and as I said with drive and obsession. But for all this to be possible we need two next-generation reforms. And this then is the make-or-break agenda for the government in my view. One, we need to strengthen the ground-level institutions, where local people take part. We need participatory democracy to make development programmes work. It is now over 30 years since the country passed the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution to empower people’s institutions — the Panchayati Raj in rural areas and the municipal system in urban India. We have also experimented with deepening democracy by strengthening Gram Sabhas or village assemblies. But all this is unfinished work. We have much more to do to give control over natural resources to village and city governments. We need them to manage funds and schemes; to create green jobs; and to invest in natural resources for livelihoods. We need to celebrate the noise of democracy. We also need to strengthen the institutions of governance for a new India. Over the past few years, most conventional institutions have been deliberately, or by sheer neglect, allowed to decay. But the fact is governance and regulation need institutions that can apply deterrence with accountability and have the ability to navigate inconvenient and tough decisions. Two, even more tomorrow than today, governance will need increased feedback and accountability. This needs tolerance for voices that differ. It is important to understand that alternative information is not dissent or targeted criticism. The more we learn about what is working and what is not, the more governance improves. Currently, most differing voices have been silenced. It is like an echo chamber where only cheerleaders thrive. In my view, this only makes a government poorer — they hear nothing and learn little. Rebuilding trust is the key — not just for schemes to succeed but also for societies to thrive. This has to be the agenda. This is the time for change; for society to build green because it is inclusive; to build growth, because it is sustainable. The writer is at the Centre for Science and Environment sunita@cseindia.org, X: @sunitanar

• Director General Office

Action agenda for new government

New Delhi: A new government is preparing to take charge in the country, and we believe it is a time to recommit to an agenda of development -- one which is inclusive and affordable and hence, sustainable for all. And June 5 is the appropriate date to make that commitment once again, according to Sunita Narain, director general, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and editor of Down To Earth, in a new podcast and video released by CSE to mark the World Environment Day. “In my view, the agenda for the next government is the old one, but with a fundamental difference. This must be India’s agenda of development in and for the age of climate change. In this age of climate change, the list of priority action areas remains the same. We have unfinished business when it comes to virtually everything: from energy to sanitation, and from health to education. We know that the last government had schemes in place and budgets allocated for all these issues. But we also know that ensuring the welfare and well-being of people is a work in progress. A lot of work still needs to be done, and in areas that the last government said it had checked off in its to-do list.

• Urban Lab

Kolkata reeling under heat even at night – But why? Know the reason

The monsoon is still a few days away, but Kolkata residents are already experiencing a pressure cooker-like daytime climate with a high temperature of 37°C and a relative humidity of about 90%. The heat island effect keeps the city from cooling down sufficiently, even after sunset, so there is no reprieve from the oppressive heat at night. On Friday, the actual feel temperature in Kolkata was a blistering 50°C. According to a study conducted by the environmental NGO Centre for Science & Environment (CSE), Kolkata is not becoming as cold at night as it did in the first ten years of the century. “Increase in built-up area, loss of greenery, and reduction in water bodies have resulted in Kolkata losing its night-time cooling power,” said Avikal Sombanshi of CSE’s Urban Lab. According to experts, the impact of urban heat islands is greater at night than it is during the day. The core Kolkata areas, which stretch from Dum Dum in the north to Garia in the south, have the lowest nighttime land surface temperature (LST) decline, according to a CSE study. The average low temperature (LST) in the city core decreased from 32.5°C during the day to 25.8°C at night in 2018–2023, in the outer city from 31.6°C to 25°C, and in the periurban areas beyond Singur and Ashok Nagar in the north and Diamond Harbour and Kharagpur in the south from 30.7°C to 24.6°C.

• Urban Lab

Kolkata reeling under heat even at night – But why? Know the reason

The monsoon is still a few days away, but Kolkata residents are already experiencing a pressure cooker-like daytime climate with a high temperature of 37°C and a relative humidity of about 90%. The heat island effect keeps the city from cooling down sufficiently, even after sunset, so there is no reprieve from the oppressive heat at night. On Friday, the actual feel temperature in Kolkata was a blistering 50°C. According to a study conducted by the environmental NGO Centre for Science & Environment (CSE), Kolkata is not becoming as cold at night as it did in the first ten years of the century. “Increase in built-up area, loss of greenery, and reduction in water bodies have resulted in Kolkata losing its night-time cooling power,” said Avikal Sombanshi of CSE’s Urban Lab. According to experts, the impact of urban heat islands is greater at night than it is during the day. The core Kolkata areas, which stretch from Dum Dum in the north to Garia in the south, have the lowest nighttime land surface temperature (LST) decline, according to a CSE study. The average low temperature (LST) in the city core decreased from 32.5°C during the day to 25.8°C at night in 2018–2023, in the outer city from 31.6°C to 25°C, and in the periurban areas beyond Singur and Ashok Nagar in the north and Diamond Harbour and Kharagpur in the south from 30.7°C to 24.6°C.

• Urban Lab

Heat Stress Exposes Dangerous Trends in India’s Biggest Cities

Amid ongoing scorching summer, six mega cities across India are facing an unprecedented heat wave that is worsening the urban heat island effect. This has been revealed by a latest study done by New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). The CSE study highlighted that heat stress is not just about rising temperatures. It is a deadly combination of air temperature, land surface temperature and relative humidity that leads to acute thermal discomfort and heat stress in cities. The CSE has tracked heat in six megacities—Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Mumbai. The time frame of the study is the summer of January 2001 till April 2024. “An unprecedented heat wave has been enveloping Indian cities, worsening the urban heat island effect, this summer. There are far deeper and longer term evidences on the nature of this changing trend that is impacting India’s biggest cities” the study said. Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director, research and advocacy at CSE, said in a statement that: “Assessing the changing trend in heat, relative humidity and land surface temperature along with day and night time temperatures is necessary to develop a comprehensive heat management plan for the urban centres. This is needed to implement emergency measures during heatwaves to protect public health, and also to develop longer term strategies to mitigate heat by increasing green areas and waterbodies, improving thermal comfort in buildings, and reducing waste heat from vehicles, air-conditioners and industries”. According to the study, cities in the warm-humid and moderate climate zones show an increase, while cities in composite and hot-dry climate zones indicate a decline. Ambient air temperature has changed by less than 0.5°C between 2001-10 and 2014-23. Decadal summer-time average ambient temperature has risen by about 0.5°C in Mumbai, Bengaluru and Chennai compared with 2001-10. Kolkata’s decadal average is also up by 0.2°C. Delhi and Hyderabad, two metros which are located in composite climate zones known for the driest and harshest summers, have registered lower decadal average compared with 2001-10, the study adds. Decadal summer-time average for Delhi is down by 0.6°C and for Hyderabad, by 0.9°C, compared with 2001-10. “Addressing the combination of high heat and humidity is particularly important as this can compromise the human body’s main cooling mechanism: sweating. The evaporation of sweat from skin cools our bodies, but higher humidity levels limit this natural cooling. As a result, people can suffer heat stress and illness, and the consequences can even be fatal even at much lower ambient temperatures. Interestingly, night time temperature is remaining elevated in cities,” Avikal Somvanshi, senior programme manager, Urban Lab, CSE said in a statement related to the study’s release. Relative humidity has increased in all zones. This increase has made heat stress worse in warm-humid and moderate climate zones, while it has nullified the fall in air temperatures in composite and hot-dry climate zones, especially during monsoons. Average relative humidity (RH) has significantly increased in the last 10 summers compared with the 2001-10 average, the study noted. Barring Bengaluru, decadal summer-time average RH has increased by 5-10% in the other five mega cities, it added. The CSE study said that given the rise of relative humidity during summers, the heat index (HI) has risen among mega cities. Chennai´s summer average heat index stood at 37.4°C (impact of humidity: 6.9°C) making it the hottest among the mega cities. Kolkata with a summer HI average of 36.5°C (impact of humidity: 6.4°C) and Mumbai with 34.3°C (impact of humidity: 5°C) were almost equally hot. Delhi’s summer HI average stood at 32.2°C (impact of humidity: 3.3°C) and Hyderabad’s at 29.3°C (impact of humidity: 1.2°C). Bengaluru was the least hot among the mega cities with a summer HI average of 26.9°C (impact of humidity: 0.8°C). The study noted that monsoons were more thermally uncomfortable in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai with their heat index being higher than during pre-monsoon period. Besides, cities are not cooling down at night at the rate they used to during 2001-10: This phenomena has been observed across all climatic zones. During the summers of 2001-10, land surface temperatures used to drop by 6.2°C-13.2°C from the day-time peak. Hyderabad used to cool down at night the most, while Kolkata the least. Now, in the last 10 summers (2014-23), night-time cooling has reduced to 6.2°C-11.5°C. The study noted that night-time cooling was getting lesser in the past few years for all megacities compared with the mid-2010s. “Hot nights are as dangerous as mid-day peak temperatures. People get little chance to recover from day-time heat if temperatures remain high overnight. A study published in the Lancet Planetary Health has noted that the risk of death from excessively hot nights would increase nearly six-fold in future. This prediction is much higher than the mortality risk from daily average warming suggested by climate change models,” said Somvanshi. The study also noted a direct co-relation between increase in built-up area and increase in urban heat stress. All megacities have become more concretised in the last two decades; this has contributed to the rise in heat stress; increase in green cover can moderate day-time heat, but is not that ineffective in arresting night-time heat. In 2023, Kolkata had the highest percentage of its land under concrete and the lowest green cover among the megacities; Delhi has comparatively the least area under concrete and the maximum green cover, it said. Over the past two decades, built-up area in Chennai has doubled. Kolkata has registered an only 10 percentage points increase in its built-up area, making it the slowest as far as concretisation is concerned. Hyderabad has doubled its green cover in the past two decades—fastest among the megacities. However, green cover has declined in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. The maximum decline was noted in Chennai, whose green cover shrank by almost 14 percentage points, the CSE study said. The technical summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Working Group-I, Sixth Assessment Report (AR6 WG-I) notes that the frequency and intensity of heat extremes and duration of heat waves have almost certainly increased since 1950, and will keep rising even if global warming is stabilized at 1.5°C. The CSE study recommended implementation of city-specific heat management plans to go beyond immediate emergency responses to help cope with specific heat events during summer and prevent heat lock-in. Key heat generators, such as concrete built surfaces, barren land and waste heat generators like vehicles, industries, and cooling devices should be brought under the ambit of the plan. Guidelines and action plans to reduce thermal load on buildings and enhance thermal comfort; manage waste heat must be adopted. It also called for ensuring reversal of land-use changes to expand green areas and waterbodies for stronger cooling effect. Among the other recommendations are and increase in shaded areas. “There should be tracking of annual and diurnal trends in temperature, humidity and overall heat index to inform planning and implementation. It is critical to develop emergency healthcare systems for heat-related disease burden, expand the shaded areas in cities, ensure availability of drinking water in public spaces, and reduce heat exposure for vulnerable and occupationally exposed groups in cities,” the study added.

• Clean Air & Sustainable Mobility

Bicycle-sharing, infrastructure make cycling a popular choice in China

On a May morning, in the Jianguomen area in the heart of Beijing, a father was teaching his son how to ride a bicycle, a mother and son duo came and parked their bicycles at a designated area, and a college student locked his bike using his smartphone after reaching his destination. “I use shareable bicycles every morning to go to my college. It’s easy and cheaper compared to cabs and is also environmentally friendly,” said Zhang Yi Fei, 23. Mr. Zhang is not alone and this trend is not limited to Jianguomen. Across Beijing, people riding blue, yellow and green bicycles are hard to miss and one can see dozens of bikes, at times hundreds, parked outside metro stations. These shareable bicycles belonging to three different private companies have made cycling hassle-free and popular. One can unlock a bicycle by scanning a QR code using a mobile app, ride it and park it at a different stand and pay using the same app. For example, from Jianguomen metro station to Ritan Park, which is less than 2 km, there are at least five cycle stands. It is 1.5 yuan (around Rs. 17) for a 30-minute ride and you can also take unlimited monthly or annual passes for as little as 17 and 200 yuan, respectively Liu Daizong, East Asia Director of the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), an international organisation that works with governments to design and implement transport and urban development systems, said he cycles to and from work every day using shareable bicycles. “It takes me about 45 minutes to ride 10 km to work in the morning and it is one of the best ways to commute in Beijing and it is a good exercise, too. Increasing number of people are using cycles in Beijing and people’s mindset towards cycling is also changing,” Mr. Liu said. Infrastructure push The popularity of cycling is not just because of bicycle-sharing, but also due to the infrastructure provided for cyclists. In Beijing, there are separate bicycle lanes in most parts of the city. These lanes are marked on the main road by intermittent broad red stripes on the right side of the road or large white signs of cycle. The government has built a 6.5-km dedicated three-lane bicycle track in the northwest part of the city, which is 6 metres wide. About 3 km of this is an elevated bicycle lane that runs over the main roads. It connects the Huilongguan area, where housing is comparatively cheaper, with the Shangdi area, which hosts many technology companies. In another part of the city, there are separate traffic lights for cycles and they turn green before other vehicles get a green signal, making it easier for cyclists. Mr. Liu, of the ITDP, said it is being run on a pilot basis. Not just Beijing Cycle lanes are not limited to Beijing. In different cities of Fujian and Hainan, two coastal provinces in the southeast and south of China, bicycle-sharing is picking up and cycle lanes are seen. But there are problems, too. An increasing number of electric scooters/bikes use the cycle lanes and whoosh past cyclists at higher speeds. In Xiamen, a city in Fujian, cycle tracks were seen on the sidewalks and not on the main road like in Beijing. Sometimes the tracks were not marked separately on the sidewalks, leading to pedestrians, cycles, and electric bikes, sharing the same space. In Quanzhou, a smaller city of Fujian, there were cycle tracks on the road and shareable bicycles. But without a subway network like Beijing and Xiamen, very few people were seen using shareable bicycles in the city. Due to differences in social and economic backgrounds, there is a significant disparity in the levels of bicycle ridership and development between cities in northern and southern China, according to the ITDP. Bumpy ride Interestingly, China’s bicycle journey over the years has not been a smooth one. “In the 1960s, owning a bicycle means you were rich and it was like owning a car today,” said Mr. Liu. But by the 1980s, it would not be uncommon to see thousands of cyclists, rather than cars, crowd the streets of major cities during the rush hour commute, and China was often recognised as the ‘Kingdom of Bicycles’, according to the ITDP. “But in the early 1990s, the number of buses on the roads increased and in the later half of 1990s, the number of cars also grew. The government encouraged people to buy cars, as the government thought it would lead to economic progress. China was trying to adopt the U.S. model of economic development,” Mr. Liu said. A 2004 article published by the state-run China Daily, titled “China ends bicycle kingdom as embracing cars”, speaks about how more people were buying cars. Mr. Liu said that slowly the number of cycles fell and people started associating cars with economic progress and success, while cycles were seen as only for the poor. “In Beijing, cars started to drive on the bicycle lanes and no one was monitoring them. The overall experience of cycling became bad. In my hometown Nanjing, authorities put the cycle lane in the pedestrian way,” added Mr. Liu. But air pollution and traffic congestion became a problem in many cities. “When China hosted the Olympics in 2008, factories were shut down for a month in Beijing to show the world that the air was clean,” Mr. Liu said. After the Olympics, people started demanding permanent solutions and the government also started seriously looking for solutions. “After Xi Jinping became President in 2012, the government took many concrete steps and pumped in more money and cycles were seen as a solution to both the problems,” he added. But in the early 2010s, bicycle-sharing started becoming popular. By 2016, there were too many private companies providing shareable bicycles. Bicycles were dumped in the streets, and in 2017, the government stepped in to regulate them. “By the end of 2017, 90% of these private companies went bankrupt and what we are seeing now are the ones who survived and the second generation of shareable bicycles,” Mr. Liu said. Mr. Liu said people’s mindset is also changing and since COVID-19, more people have taken up cycling. Bicycles are also part of Mr. Xi’s “Healthy China 2030” policy. “China still needs more infrastructure for bicycles and can learn from cities such as Copenhagen and Paris. But China can also be a model for many other countries,” he said. Lessons for India In Delhi, there are hardly any bicycle lanes, an issue which has been highlighted over the years by urban planners and cyclists, and people rarely use bicycles for last mile connectivity. Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director of the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a research and advocacy organisation in Delhi, said that though the idea of bicycle sharing has taken root in many Indian cities, it is still in the initial stages. Ms. Roychowdhury said that in Delhi, cycle lanes are fragmented small stretches that make up just 1% of the total road network. “It is largely for beautification and doesn’t meet the requirements of a commuter,” she said. “In India, mostly those from lower income groups cycle. Not many people cycle by choice, as the roads are unsafe for cyclists. Safety is a key factor when you decide whether you should cycle or not,” she added. Ms. Roychowdhury said there are policies in Delhi and other cities for including cycles and pedestrians in urban planning, but those are not being implemented properly. “We talk about sustainable transport, but government agencies are focussing mostly only on the main carriageway, which is meant for vehicles and not for cycles and pedestrians.” She stressed that promoting cycles and walking is crucial for solving air pollution in Delhi and other Indian cities. “Prioritising walking and cycling are the most fundamental zero emission strategies. But because of the obsession with car-centric planning, investments for walking and cycling are not happening and the infrastructure for it is not developing,” she added.

• Urban Lab

Why is Kolkata not cooling down even at night? Blame it on the heat island effect

KOLKATA: With the monsoon still a few days away, Kolkatans are enduring a pressure cooker feel during day with relative humidity hovering around 90% and maximum temperature touching 37°C. There is no relief from the sweltering heat at night either as heat island effect is preventing the city from cooling down adequately even after sunset. The real feel temperature in Kolkata was a scorching 50°C on Friday. A study by environment NGO Centre for Science & Environment (CSE) has observed that Kolkata is not cooling down at night as it used to during the first decade of the century. “Increase in built-up area, loss of greenery and reduction in water bodies has resulted in Kolkata losing its night-time cooling power,” said Avikal Sombanshi of CSE’s Urban Lab. Experts say the effect of urban heat islands is stronger at night than during day. A CSE study has found that drop in night-time land surface temperature (LST) is the lowest in core Kolkata areas that extend from Dum Dum in the north to Garia in the south. The average LST between March 1 and Aug 30 for 2018 to 2023 dropped from 32.5°C during the day to 25.8°C at night in the city core, from 31.6°C to 25°C in the outer city and 30.7°C to 24.6°C in periurban areas beyond Singur and Ashok Nagar in the north and Diamond Harbour and Kharagpur in the south. Rise in built-up area and loss of green cover and water bodies have intensified the urban heat island effect in Kolkata. The city’s built-up area, that stood at 70% of total area in 2001, has increased to 80.1% in 2023, the highest among metros. Consequently, green cover has reduced to 15.2% of total area in 2001 to 14.5% in 2023, the lowest among metros. In the same period, water bodies has decreased from 5.1% of total area to just 1.9%. ‘Heat index in Kolkata higher during monsoon’ A study by environment NGO Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) says urban heat island effect can add up to 2°C to local warming, reducing the adaptive capacity of a city. “The combination of high heat and humidity can compromise the human body’s main cooling mechanism: sweating. The evaporation of sweat from the skin cools our bodies, but higher humidity levels limit the natural cooling. As a result, people can suffer heat stress and illness, and the consequences can be fatal even at much lower temperatures if humidity is so high,” said Avikal Sombanshi. In the last decade, Kolkata experienced the highest relative humidity among six megacities in India. The city had the highest relative humidity in 2020 and the lowest in 2023, but the ambient air temperature was highest in 2023 at 30.1°C. “The monsoon months are more thermally uncomfortable with their heat index being higher than the pre-monsoon period,” said Ranjneesh Sareen of CSE. “IMD trend analysis showed evidence of an increase in air moisture content over India during 1969-2007 with more than 90% stations showing increasing trends in specific humidity. Thus the current wave of heat and humidity is in line of the Sixth Assessment Report of Working Group-I (AR6WGI) of IPCC, which says that the frequency and intensity of heat extremes and duration of heat waves have increased since 1950 and this will keep increasing even if global warming stabilises at 1.5°C,” said CSE executive director Anumita Roychowdhury.

• Urban Lab

印度城市高温多人死亡：普通人有多难熬

印度城市高温多人死亡：普通人有多难熬 来源：三联生活周刊 5月下旬，印度北部遭受持续高温天气，5月29日德里市区录得创纪录的49.1摄氏度。极端高温造成印度211人身亡。印度气象学家的研究显示，城市建设带来的环境变化，正在抬高城市的体感温度，让更多人面临健康挑战。 停电的不眠夜 5月29日星期三夜晚，印度德里市区有史以来最热的一天，留学生李梓硕经历了入夏后最漫长的一次停电。 停电是从凌晨12点开始的。等待来电的李梓硕，跟住在隔壁的同学一起爬楼梯上了天台。午夜，室外温度仍高达40度，但和室内相比，那里至少不闷。两人用聊天分散着停电带来的烦躁。恰逢期末考试周，同学告诉李梓硕，他一共有7门考试，但是因为天热，连续一周没能睡好觉，头疼，已经考砸了一科。 《睡在我上铺的兄弟》剧照 从五月中旬开始，由于用电需求暴涨，跳闸断电成了常态，尤其是晚上家家户户打开空调的时候。“一到晚上睡觉的时候就疯狂停电，这谁受的了？白天哪怕50度，只要不在室外挨晒，我可以在室内工作，但是我不能晚上40度在室内睡觉。” 李梓硕所在的学生公寓没有窗户，靠空调通风换气，一旦空调停摆，热气就凝滞在房间和楼道里。“只剩下洗澡这种方式来降温，让水蒸发带走热量。”但是在一室一卫的房间里，“一洗澡，整个屋湿度直线飙升，没有电用不了排风扇，等于让房间更热了，没过多久又得去洗。”李梓硕算过，最多一晚上洗了8次澡。 一般来说，电力会在一小时左右恢复。但是29日这天，电迟迟不来。在天台上，李梓硕试着闭上眼睡一会儿，但没有凉风，暑热令人辗转反侧，“根本睡不着”。直到天上的云渐渐显出轮廓，李梓硕才意识到一整夜就这么熬过去了。等到早上10点，烈日当空，电力供应才终于恢复。这天李梓硕要准备一门课的期末答辩，但是通宵失眠让他感觉“很虚，恍惚和亢奋交替”。 当地时间5月29日，印度德里有气温监测站记录到49.1摄氏度高温。有一座监测站曾测出52.9摄氏度高温，但印度政府在6月1日澄清，该温度传感器出现故障。49.1摄氏度的高温打破了此前德里辖区的最高温纪录。1998年，德里的气温曾经达到过48.4度。 这场极端热浪还赶上印度五年一度的大选。6月1日，大选投票进入最后阶段，不少民众顶着酷热前往投票站排队，有人在队伍中晕倒。据《印度时报》报道，截至6月3日，印度全国已有211人疑似因中暑身亡，其中包括33名选举现场当值的工作人员。新闻网站ThePrint援引政府数据称，3月至5月，印度共有近2.5万人疑似中暑。 当地时间2024年5月22日，各地市民在酷暑下参与政选活动（图源｜视觉中国） 在德里做电子产品销售的李成，每周上6天班，要四处跑客户。他用“榨油”来形容白天呆在户外的感受。“下午12点到6点之间，温度基本都在 45 度左右，人像在炉子里，穿短袖露出的手臂直冒汗，但又不像汗，像被榨出来的油。”李成告诉本刊，他最近每天都要喝三五升的水，此外还要靠印度传统冷饮补充盐分和糖分。“那是一种柠檬水，加了很多玛萨拉（香料），咸咸的，虽然喝完胃有点不舒服，但是解渴，而且喝完有体力，不会像喝白水一样，喝完有虚脱的感觉。” 最热的那两天，李成出现了疑似中暑症状。“出差的地方没空调，两点半我准备睡觉，但睡不着，爬起来喝了四次水。尽管如此，一夜没有去过洗手间，水分全都出汗出掉了。我全身都被汗湿透，连整个枕头浸湿了。”第二天，李成觉得自己好像感冒了，吃了一天感冒药，“浑浑噩噩，到了有空调的地方才缓过气来。” 《我是余欢水》剧照 对于在读研究生李梓硕来说，白天只要避免户外运动，勉强能撑过去。他会坐公交车到有空调的高级商场去，找一家咖啡馆坐上一天，因为那是城中少数供电稳定的地方。经过德里街头，李梓硕发现面熟的几个流浪汉不再沿街乞讨，而是从早到晚都躺在地上，“感觉已经没有力气了”。街道清洁人员在恶劣天气下也难以持续工作，垃圾堆放在街道上两三天也没人移走，异味极为强烈。不过，李梓硕觉得今年蚊子格外少，“好像减少了90%”。 城市升温 德里不是突然一下子热起来的。位于印度北部的德里有超过2千万人口，范围涵盖首都区新德里，属于热带季风气候，初夏总会干燥炎热，直到季风来临的雨季才会好转。往年4到6月，德里的平均气温在38摄氏度左右，出现45摄氏度的高温也不出奇。所以，德里居民早就养成了一些应对高温的习惯，比如使用水和风扇组合成的“水空调”，食用高盐分的食物，以及推迟睡眠时间。 不过，今年比往年更难熬，不仅气温高，而且超40摄氏度的天数是往年同期的两倍，习惯了酷暑的德里居民也开始受不了。去年刚来德里上学的时候，李梓硕注意到，他的印度同学不像中国男生，再热也不会在宿舍脱掉上衣。但今年，“印度同学也都开始赤膊在宿舍走动了。” 据印度科学媒体《自然印度》报道，今年的极端高温，最直接原因是厄尔尼诺现象导致海洋温度上升，而来自孟加拉湾和阿拉伯海的潮湿海风被高压系统挡住。 不过，印度科学家发现，如果把时间拉长到近20年，印度城市温度整体升高与城市化的热岛效应也脱离不了干系——由于地表、建筑、植被和人类活动的不同，城市比周边地区更热。印度理工学院布巴内斯瓦尔分校的地球、海洋与气候科学学院副教授V·维诺杰(V. Vinoj )今年5月发表了一篇论文，指出热岛效应对于印度城市气温升高的作用，可能占到60%。 维诺杰和同事进行的这项研究，分析了2003年到2020年印度141座城市的温度变化。他们发现，城市的环境温度平均每十年升高0.5摄氏度，是全国平均值的2倍，而且城市的变暖幅度远大于它们周边的乡村。经济和人口规模处在第二梯队的新兴城市，因为发展速度快，气温受城市化影响也最明显，个别城市升温甚至100%来自热岛效应——在所处地域普遍降温的情况下，这座城市仍反向升温。 印度新德里遭热浪侵袭 民众“挤爆”市政水车取水（图源｜视觉中国） 事实上，影响人们体感的，还不单纯是气象站探测到的温度。印度研究机构科学与环境中心（CSE）的数据显示，印度大城市体感温度的上升，远远快于环境升温速度，这主要是因为空气更湿了，以及夜间温度降不下来。 CSE的报告称，比起10年前，2023年德里的夏季平均气温变化幅度不到1摄氏度，但体感温度增加了3.3摄氏度，湿度增加了8%。CSE高级研究员、城市环境学家阿维卡尔·索姆万什（Avikal Somvanshi）告诉本刊，湿度升高对于干热的印度北部来讲，不是好消息。“人体通过排出汗液、水分蒸发来达到降温的目的，但是当相对湿度较高时，水分的蒸发率就会降低，体感会更热。” 夜间高温则是另一个棘手问题。“以前德里市区入夜后可以下降13、14度，现在只会下降8、9度。”这意味着，夜晚温度也将保持在40度以上。索姆万什说，“比起工作状态，睡眠需要更低的温度。如果夜间温度过高，人体将无法从炎热白天的疲劳中恢复，如果连续三四天都是如此，身体健康会受到明显影响。” 索姆万什表示，科学家们对于印度北部的湿度为何增加尚不清楚，但可以肯定的是，夜间高温与城市的“混凝土化”有关。“德里的老房子，通常有更厚的墙壁，阻隔烈日。这些墙壁用泥土和石头建造，散热快，而且会有很多通风设计，能够让微风穿过房子。但是随着城市发展，越来越多建筑采用水泥、玻璃建造的外墙，而些材质不利于散热，到了晚上把热气锁在室内，室内比室外更热。空调虽然能把热气从室内带走，但是这会加剧室外的高温，那些没有空调的人就遭殃了。” 如何“降温” 气候变暖的大背景下，城市和乡村面临着不同挑战。索姆万什说，“尽管城市有更多的经济资源和基础设施，空调覆盖率也更高，但城市比乡村至少热上2到3度，有时甚至高出5、6度，而且城市人口要密集得多。此外，城市里的快递员、外卖员、维修工，他们受到酷热影响的风险，远远大于乡村里从事类似行业的人。” 根据世界银行2022年的数据，印度有大约5亿人居住在城市，占总人口36%，而这个比重还在增加。如何应对越来越常见的城市高温风险，成了印度科学家们关注的问题。 维诺杰在接受本刊采访时说，他希望自己的研究能提醒人们，虽然全球气候变化是个宏观问题，但是从改善城市的“小气候”入手，是切实可行的。“比起干预全球变暖，改变城市的局部温度，成本要低得多，而且对人们的生活影响更直观——水泥结构和绿地造成的温度差别是可计算的，把深色的建筑刷成白色，也能带来明显的降温效果。政策制定者能够很轻易地从数据中，量化这些措施带来的回报。” 印度新德里持续遭遇高温天气 民众拎“大盆小罐”排队接水（图源｜视觉中国） “过去许多年，印度在城市建设上喜欢赶时髦。我们会听到官员说伦敦是怎么建的、上海是怎么建的，我们也要建成那样。虽然看起来富丽堂皇，但是有些建筑形制其实不适合我们本地的气候。”索姆万什说，德里还有许多建筑在翻新和重建，在接下来的建设中，更多地考量气候和环境因素，是缓解城市高温的关键。 除了城市建设，公共政策也有很多调整的余地。索姆万什说，“我们的劳动法需要改变。如今印度的许多工作单位没有午休。但在最热的午后时间，专注工作几乎成了不可能的事。”据世界银行估计，印度近75%的劳动力，即3.8亿人，依赖于暴露在高温下的劳动，这些人面临着极高的健康风险，以及工作放缓带来的收入锐减。 当地时间2024年5月30日，印度瓦拉纳西，医生正在检查一名中暑患者。（图源｜视觉中国） 家在印度南部的学生，暑假通常选择回家避暑，但李梓硕的选项不多。当被问到接下来如何度过这个夏天，李梓硕回答：“最主要是忍”。 索姆万什说，对于普通人来讲，除非能换个地方生活，否则尝试从衣着、饮食和作息上，适应高温这种新常态，也许是眼下能做的事。 “气候变暖是一个不可逆的过程。即便我们遏制住恶化的趋势，也意味着今天我们面对的高温，恐怕还将持续。”

• Urban Lab

印度城市高温多人死亡：49度天气普通人有多难熬？

*本文为「三联生活周刊」原创内容 5月下旬，印度北部遭受持续高温天气，5月29日德里市区录得创纪录的49.1摄氏度。极端高温造成印度211人身亡。印度气象学家的研究显示，城市建设带来的环境变化，正在抬高城市的体感温度，让更多人面临健康挑战。 记者｜覃思 编辑｜徐菁菁 停电的不眠夜 5月29日星期三夜晚，印度德里市区有史以来最热的一天，留学生李梓硕经历了入夏后最漫长的一次停电。 停电是从凌晨12点开始的。等待来电的李梓硕，跟住在隔壁的同学一起爬楼梯上了天台。午夜，室外温度仍高达40度，但和室内相比，那里至少不闷。两人用聊天分散着停电带来的烦躁。恰逢期末考试周，同学告诉李梓硕，他一共有7门考试，但是因为天热，连续一周没能睡好觉，头疼，已经考砸了一科。 《睡在我上铺的兄弟》剧照 从五月中旬开始，由于用电需求暴涨，跳闸断电成了常态，尤其是晚上家家户户打开空调的时候。“一到晚上睡觉的时候就疯狂停电，这谁受的了？白天哪怕50度，只要不在室外挨晒，我可以在室内工作，但是我不能晚上40度在室内睡觉。” 李梓硕所在的学生公寓没有窗户，靠空调通风换气，一旦空调停摆，热气就凝滞在房间和楼道里。“只剩下洗澡这种方式来降温，让水蒸发带走热量。”但是在一室一卫的房间里，“一洗澡，整个屋湿度直线飙升，没有电用不了排风扇，等于让房间更热了，没过多久又得去洗。”李梓硕算过，最多一晚上洗了8次澡。 一般来说，电力会在一小时左右恢复。但是29日这天，电迟迟不来。在天台上，李梓硕试着闭上眼睡一会儿，但没有凉风，暑热令人辗转反侧，“根本睡不着”。直到天上的云渐渐显出轮廓，李梓硕才意识到一整夜就这么熬过去了。等到早上10点，烈日当空，电力供应才终于恢复。这天李梓硕要准备一门课的期末答辩，但是通宵失眠让他感觉“很虚，恍惚和亢奋交替”。 当地时间5月29日，印度德里有气温监测站记录到49.1摄氏度高温。有一座监测站曾测出52.9摄氏度高温，但印度政府在6月1日澄清，该温度传感器出现故障。49.1摄氏度的高温打破了此前德里辖区的最高温纪录。1998年，德里的气温曾经达到过48.4度。 这场极端热浪还赶上印度五年一度的大选。6月1日，大选投票进入最后阶段，不少民众顶着酷热前往投票站排队，有人在队伍中晕倒。据《印度时报》报道，截至6月3日，印度全国已有211人疑似因中暑身亡，其中包括33名选举现场当值的工作人员。新闻网站ThePrint援引政府数据称，3月至5月，印度共有近2.5万人疑似中暑。 当地时间2024年5月22日，各地市民在酷暑下参与政选活动（图源｜视觉中国） 在德里做电子产品销售的李成，每周上6天班，要四处跑客户。他用“榨油”来形容白天呆在户外的感受。“下午12点到6点之间，温度基本都在 45 度左右，人像在炉子里，穿短袖露出的手臂直冒汗，但又不像汗，像被榨出来的油。”李成告诉本刊，他最近每天都要喝三五升的水，此外还要靠印度传统冷饮补充盐分和糖分。“那是一种柠檬水，加了很多玛萨拉（香料），咸咸的，虽然喝完胃有点不舒服，但是解渴，而且喝完有体力，不会像喝白水一样，喝完有虚脱的感觉。” 最热的那两天，李成出现了疑似中暑症状。“出差的地方没空调，两点半我准备睡觉，但睡不着，爬起来喝了四次水。尽管如此，一夜没有去过洗手间，水分全都出汗出掉了。我全身都被汗湿透，连整个枕头浸湿了。”第二天，李成觉得自己好像感冒了，吃了一天感冒药，“浑浑噩噩，到了有空调的地方才缓过气来。” 《我是余欢水》剧照 对于在读研究生李梓硕来说，白天只要避免户外运动，勉强能撑过去。他会坐公交车到有空调的高级商场去，找一家咖啡馆坐上一天，因为那是城中少数供电稳定的地方。经过德里街头，李梓硕发现面熟的几个流浪汉不再沿街乞讨，而是从早到晚都躺在地上，“感觉已经没有力气了”。街道清洁人员在恶劣天气下也难以持续工作，垃圾堆放在街道上两三天也没人移走，异味极为强烈。不过，李梓硕觉得今年蚊子格外少，“好像减少了90%”。 城市升温 德里不是突然一下子热起来的。位于印度北部的德里有超过2千万人口，范围涵盖首都区新德里，属于热带季风气候，初夏总会干燥炎热，直到季风来临的雨季才会好转。往年4到6月，德里的平均气温在38摄氏度左右，出现45摄氏度的高温也不出奇。所以，德里居民早就养成了一些应对高温的习惯，比如使用水和风扇组合成的“水空调”，食用高盐分的食物，以及推迟睡眠时间。 不过，今年比往年更难熬，不仅气温高，而且超40摄氏度的天数是往年同期的两倍，习惯了酷暑的德里居民也开始受不了。去年刚来德里上学的时候，李梓硕注意到，他的印度同学不像中国男生，再热也不会在宿舍脱掉上衣。但今年，“印度同学也都开始赤膊在宿舍走动了。” 据印度科学媒体《自然印度》报道，今年的极端高温，最直接原因是厄尔尼诺现象导致海洋温度上升，而来自孟加拉湾和阿拉伯海的潮湿海风被高压系统挡住。 不过，印度科学家发现，如果把时间拉长到近20年，印度城市温度整体升高与城市化的热岛效应也脱离不了干系——由于地表、建筑、植被和人类活动的不同，城市比周边地区更热。印度理工学院布巴内斯瓦尔分校的地球、海洋与气候科学学院副教授V·维诺杰(V. Vinoj )今年5月发表了一篇论文，指出热岛效应对于印度城市气温升高的作用，可能占到60%。 维诺杰和同事进行的这项研究，分析了2003年到2020年印度141座城市的温度变化。他们发现，城市的环境温度平均每十年升高0.5摄氏度，是全国平均值的2倍，而且城市的变暖幅度远大于它们周边的乡村。经济和人口规模处在第二梯队的新兴城市，因为发展速度快，气温受城市化影响也最明显，个别城市升温甚至100%来自热岛效应——在所处地域普遍降温的情况下，这座城市仍反向升温。 印度新德里遭热浪侵袭 民众“挤爆”市政水车取水（图源｜视觉中国） 事实上，影响人们体感的，还不单纯是气象站探测到的温度。印度研究机构科学与环境中心（CSE）的数据显示，印度大城市体感温度的上升，远远快于环境升温速度，这主要是因为空气更湿了，以及夜间温度降不下来。 CSE的报告称，比起10年前，2023年德里的夏季平均气温变化幅度不到1摄氏度，但体感温度增加了3.3摄氏度，湿度增加了8%。CSE高级研究员、城市环境学家阿维卡尔·索姆万什（Avikal Somvanshi）告诉本刊，湿度升高对于干热的印度北部来讲，不是好消息。“人体通过排出汗液、水分蒸发来达到降温的目的，但是当相对湿度较高时，水分的蒸发率就会降低，体感会更热。” 夜间高温则是另一个棘手问题。“以前德里市区入夜后可以下降13、14度，现在只会下降8、9度。”这意味着，夜晚温度也将保持在40度以上。索姆万什说，“比起工作状态，睡眠需要更低的温度。如果夜间温度过高，人体将无法从炎热白天的疲劳中恢复，如果连续三四天都是如此，身体健康会受到明显影响。” 索姆万什表示，科学家们对于印度北部的湿度为何增加尚不清楚，但可以肯定的是，夜间高温与城市的“混凝土化”有关。“德里的老房子，通常有更厚的墙壁，阻隔烈日。这些墙壁用泥土和石头建造，散热快，而且会有很多通风设计，能够让微风穿过房子。但是随着城市发展，越来越多建筑采用水泥、玻璃建造的外墙，而些材质不利于散热，到了晚上把热气锁在室内，室内比室外更热。空调虽然能把热气从室内带走，但是这会加剧室外的高温，那些没有空调的人就遭殃了。” 如何“降温” 气候变暖的大背景下，城市和乡村面临着不同挑战。索姆万什说，“尽管城市有更多的经济资源和基础设施，空调覆盖率也更高，但城市比乡村至少热上2到3度，有时甚至高出5、6度，而且城市人口要密集得多。此外，城市里的快递员、外卖员、维修工，他们受到酷热影响的风险，远远大于乡村里从事类似行业的人。” 根据世界银行2022年的数据，印度有大约5亿人居住在城市，占总人口36%，而这个比重还在增加。如何应对越来越常见的城市高温风险，成了印度科学家们关注的问题。 维诺杰在接受本刊采访时说，他希望自己的研究能提醒人们，虽然全球气候变化是个宏观问题，但是从改善城市的“小气候”入手，是切实可行的。“比起干预全球变暖，改变城市的局部温度，成本要低得多，而且对人们的生活影响更直观——水泥结构和绿地造成的温度差别是可计算的，把深色的建筑刷成白色，也能带来明显的降温效果。政策制定者能够很轻易地从数据中，量化这些措施带来的回报。” 印度新德里持续遭遇高温天气 民众拎“大盆小罐”排队接水（图源｜视觉中国） “过去许多年，印度在城市建设上喜欢赶时髦。我们会听到官员说伦敦是怎么建的、上海是怎么建的，我们也要建成那样。虽然看起来富丽堂皇，但是有些建筑形制其实不适合我们本地的气候。”索姆万什说，德里还有许多建筑在翻新和重建，在接下来的建设中，更多地考量气候和环境因素，是缓解城市高温的关键。 除了城市建设，公共政策也有很多调整的余地。索姆万什说，“我们的劳动法需要改变。如今印度的许多工作单位没有午休。但在最热的午后时间，专注工作几乎成了不可能的事。”据世界银行估计，印度近75%的劳动力，即3.8亿人，依赖于暴露在高温下的劳动，这些人面临着极高的健康风险，以及工作放缓带来的收入锐减。 当地时间2024年5月30日，印度瓦拉纳西，医生正在检查一名中暑患者。（图源｜视觉中国） 家在印度南部的学生，暑假通常选择回家避暑，但李梓硕的选项不多。当被问到接下来如何度过这个夏天，李梓硕回答：“最主要是忍”。 索姆万什说，对于普通人来讲，除非能换个地方生活，否则尝试从衣着、饮食和作息上，适应高温这种新常态，也许是眼下能做的事。 “气候变暖是一个不可逆的过程。即便我们遏制住恶化的趋势，也意味着今天我们面对的高温，恐怕还将持续。” “点赞”“在看”，让更多人看到

• Urban Lab

印度城市高温多人死亡：49度天气普通人有多难熬？

5月下旬，印度北部遭受持续高温天气，5月29日德里市区录得创纪录的49.1摄氏度。极端高温造成印度211人身亡。印度气象学家的研究显示，城市建设带来的环境变化，正在抬高城市的体感温度，让更多人面临健康挑战。 5月29日星期三夜晚，印度德里市区有史以来最热的一天，留学生李梓硕经历了入夏后最漫长的一次停电。 停电是从凌晨12点开始的。等待来电的李梓硕，跟住在隔壁的同学一起爬楼梯上了天台。午夜，室外温度仍高达40度，但和室内相比，那里至少不闷。两人用聊天分散着停电带来的烦躁。恰逢期末考试周，同学告诉李梓硕，他一共有7门考试，但是因为天热，连续一周没能睡好觉，头疼，已经考砸了一科。 《睡在我上铺的兄弟》剧照 从五月中旬开始，由于用电需求暴涨，跳闸断电成了常态，尤其是晚上家家户户打开空调的时候。“一到晚上睡觉的时候就疯狂停电，这谁受的了？白天哪怕50度，只要不在室外挨晒，我可以在室内工作，但是我不能晚上40度在室内睡觉。” 李梓硕所在的学生公寓没有窗户，靠空调通风换气，一旦空调停摆，热气就凝滞在房间和楼道里。“只剩下洗澡这种方式来降温，让水蒸发带走热量。”但是在一室一卫的房间里，“一洗澡，整个屋湿度直线飙升，没有电用不了排风扇，等于让房间更热了，没过多久又得去洗。”李梓硕算过，最多一晚上洗了8次澡。 一般来说，电力会在一小时左右恢复。但是29日这天，电迟迟不来。在天台上，李梓硕试着闭上眼睡一会儿，但没有凉风，暑热令人辗转反侧，“根本睡不着”。直到天上的云渐渐显出轮廓，李梓硕才意识到一整夜就这么熬过去了。等到早上10点，烈日当空，电力供应才终于恢复。这天李梓硕要准备一门课的期末答辩，但是通宵失眠让他感觉“很虚，恍惚和亢奋交替”。 当地时间5月29日，印度德里有气温监测站记录到49.1摄氏度高温。有一座监测站曾测出52.9摄氏度高温，但印度政府在6月1日澄清，该温度传感器出现故障。49.1摄氏度的高温打破了此前德里辖区的最高温纪录。1998年，德里的气温曾经达到过48.4度。 这场极端热浪还赶上印度五年一度的大选。6月1日，大选投票进入最后阶段，不少民众顶着酷热前往投票站排队，有人在队伍中晕倒。据《印度时报》报道，截至6月3日，印度全国已有211人疑似因中暑身亡，其中包括33名选举现场当值的工作人员。新闻网站ThePrint援引政府数据称，3月至5月，印度共有近2.5万人疑似中暑。 当地时间2024年5月22日，各地市民在酷暑下参与政选活动（图源｜视觉中国） 在德里做电子产品销售的李成，每周上6天班，要四处跑客户。他用“榨油”来形容白天呆在户外的感受。“下午12点到6点之间，温度基本都在 45 度左右，人像在炉子里，穿短袖露出的手臂直冒汗，但又不像汗，像被榨出来的油。”李成告诉本刊，他最近每天都要喝三五升的水，此外还要靠印度传统冷饮补充盐分和糖分。“那是一种柠檬水，加了很多玛萨拉（香料），咸咸的，虽然喝完胃有点不舒服，但是解渴，而且喝完有体力，不会像喝白水一样，喝完有虚脱的感觉。” 最热的那两天，李成出现了疑似中暑症状。“出差的地方没空调，两点半我准备睡觉，但睡不着，爬起来喝了四次水。尽管如此，一夜没有去过洗手间，水分全都出汗出掉了。我全身都被汗湿透，连整个枕头浸湿了。”第二天，李成觉得自己好像感冒了，吃了一天感冒药，“浑浑噩噩，到了有空调的地方才缓过气来。” 《我是余欢水》剧照 对于在读研究生李梓硕来说，白天只要避免户外运动，勉强能撑过去。他会坐公交车到有空调的高级商场去，找一家咖啡馆坐上一天，因为那是城中少数供电稳定的地方。经过德里街头，李梓硕发现面熟的几个流浪汉不再沿街乞讨，而是从早到晚都躺在地上，“感觉已经没有力气了”。街道清洁人员在恶劣天气下也难以持续工作，垃圾堆放在街道上两三天也没人移走，异味极为强烈。不过，李梓硕觉得今年蚊子格外少，“好像减少了90%”。 城市升温 德里不是突然一下子热起来的。位于印度北部的德里有超过2千万人口，范围涵盖首都区新德里，属于热带季风气候，初夏总会干燥炎热，直到季风来临的雨季才会好转。往年4到6月，德里的平均气温在38摄氏度左右，出现45摄氏度的高温也不出奇。所以，德里居民早就养成了一些应对高温的习惯，比如使用水和风扇组合成的“水空调”，食用高盐分的食物，以及推迟睡眠时间。 不过，今年比往年更难熬，不仅气温高，而且超40摄氏度的天数是往年同期的两倍，习惯了酷暑的德里居民也开始受不了。去年刚来德里上学的时候，李梓硕注意到，他的印度同学不像中国男生，再热也不会在宿舍脱掉上衣。但今年，“印度同学也都开始赤膊在宿舍走动了。” 据印度科学媒体《自然印度》报道，今年的极端高温，最直接原因是厄尔尼诺现象导致海洋温度上升，而来自孟加拉湾和阿拉伯海的潮湿海风被高压系统挡住。 不过，印度科学家发现，如果把时间拉长到近20年，印度城市温度整体升高与城市化的热岛效应也脱离不了干系——由于地表、建筑、植被和人类活动的不同，城市比周边地区更热。印度理工学院布巴内斯瓦尔分校的地球、海洋与气候科学学院副教授V·维诺杰(V. Vinoj )今年5月发表了一篇论文，指出热岛效应对于印度城市气温升高的作用，可能占到60%。 维诺杰和同事进行的这项研究，分析了2003年到2020年印度141座城市的温度变化。他们发现，城市的环境温度平均每十年升高0.5摄氏度，是全国平均值的2倍，而且城市的变暖幅度远大于它们周边的乡村。经济和人口规模处在第二梯队的新兴城市，因为发展速度快，气温受城市化影响也最明显，个别城市升温甚至100%来自热岛效应——在所处地域普遍降温的情况下，这座城市仍反向升温。 印度新德里遭热浪侵袭 民众“挤爆”市政水车取水（图源｜视觉中国） 事实上，影响人们体感的，还不单纯是气象站探测到的温度。印度研究机构科学与环境中心（CSE）的数据显示，印度大城市体感温度的上升，远远快于环境升温速度，这主要是因为空气更湿了，以及夜间温度降不下来。 CSE的报告称，比起10年前，2023年德里的夏季平均气温变化幅度不到1摄氏度，但体感温度增加了3.3摄氏度，湿度增加了8%。CSE高级研究员、城市环境学家阿维卡尔·索姆万什（Avikal Somvanshi）告诉本刊，湿度升高对于干热的印度北部来讲，不是好消息。“人体通过排出汗液、水分蒸发来达到降温的目的，但是当相对湿度较高时，水分的蒸发率就会降低，体感会更热。” 夜间高温则是另一个棘手问题。“以前德里市区入夜后可以下降13、14度，现在只会下降8、9度。”这意味着，夜晚温度也将保持在40度以上。索姆万什说，“比起工作状态，睡眠需要更低的温度。如果夜间温度过高，人体将无法从炎热白天的疲劳中恢复，如果连续三四天都是如此，身体健康会受到明显影响。” 索姆万什表示，科学家们对于印度北部的湿度为何增加尚不清楚，但可以肯定的是，夜间高温与城市的“混凝土化”有关。“德里的老房子，通常有更厚的墙壁，阻隔烈日。这些墙壁用泥土和石头建造，散热快，而且会有很多通风设计，能够让微风穿过房子。但是随着城市发展，越来越多建筑采用水泥、玻璃建造的外墙，而些材质不利于散热，到了晚上把热气锁在室内，室内比室外更热。空调虽然能把热气从室内带走，但是这会加剧室外的高温，那些没有空调的人就遭殃了。” 如何“降温” 气候变暖的大背景下，城市和乡村面临着不同挑战。索姆万什说，“尽管城市有更多的经济资源和基础设施，空调覆盖率也更高，但城市比乡村至少热上2到3度，有时甚至高出5、6度，而且城市人口要密集得多。此外，城市里的快递员、外卖员、维修工，他们受到酷热影响的风险，远远大于乡村里从事类似行业的人。” 根据世界银行2022年的数据，印度有大约5亿人居住在城市，占总人口36%，而这个比重还在增加。如何应对越来越常见的城市高温风险，成了印度科学家们关注的问题。 维诺杰在接受本刊采访时说，他希望自己的研究能提醒人们，虽然全球气候变化是个宏观问题，但是从改善城市的“小气候”入手，是切实可行的。“比起干预全球变暖，改变城市的局部温度，成本要低得多，而且对人们的生活影响更直观——水泥结构和绿地造成的温度差别是可计算的，把深色的建筑刷成白色，也能带来明显的降温效果。政策制定者能够很轻易地从数据中，量化这些措施带来的回报。” 印度新德里持续遭遇高温天气 民众拎“大盆小罐”排队接水（图源｜视觉中国） “过去许多年，印度在城市建设上喜欢赶时髦。我们会听到官员说伦敦是怎么建的、上海是怎么建的，我们也要建成那样。虽然看起来富丽堂皇，但是有些建筑形制其实不适合我们本地的气候。”索姆万什说，德里还有许多建筑在翻新和重建，在接下来的建设中，更多地考量气候和环境因素，是缓解城市高温的关键。 除了城市建设，公共政策也有很多调整的余地。索姆万什说，“我们的劳动法需要改变。如今印度的许多工作单位没有午休。但在最热的午后时间，专注工作几乎成了不可能的事。”据世界银行估计，印度近75%的劳动力，即3.8亿人，依赖于暴露在高温下的劳动，这些人面临着极高的健康风险，以及工作放缓带来的收入锐减。 当地时间2024年5月30日，印度瓦拉纳西，医生正在检查一名中暑患者。（图源｜视觉中国） 家在印度南部的学生，暑假通常选择回家避暑，但李梓硕的选项不多。当被问到接下来如何度过这个夏天，李梓硕回答：“最主要是忍”。 索姆万什说，对于普通人来讲，除非能换个地方生活，否则尝试从衣着、饮食和作息上，适应高温这种新常态，也许是眼下能做的事。 “气候变暖是一个不可逆的过程。即便我们遏制住恶化的趋势，也意味着今天我们面对的高温，恐怕还将持续。” “点赞”“在看”，让更多人看到 排版：初初 / 审核：杨逸