Centre for Science and Environment masthead Twitter LinkedIn Facebook Instagram Donate

Cse In News

Cse In News

Climate-Proofing India’s Health System

In India, this crisis is already unfolding. An assessment by the Centre for Science and Environment found that in the first nine months of 2025, India saw a 48 percent increase in deaths caused by extreme weather events compared to the previous four years. Extreme weather events were recorded on 270 of 273 days, including heat and cold waves, lightning and storms, heavy rain, floods and landslides, claiming over 4,064 lives. Disparities existed across states, with Himachal Pradesh worst affected, experiencing 217 days of extreme weather events and 380 deaths, followed by Kerala, which recorded 147 days of extreme weather and 114 deaths, and Madhya Pradesh, which experienced 144 days and a staggering 532 deaths. Another study estimated that the temperature-attributable fraction of mortality in India was 7.29 percent, with 6.8 percent of all‑age medical deaths attributable to cold temperatures and 0.5 percent to heat over the period 2001–2013. There has also been a sharp increase in disasters over the past two decades.

Air quality warnings are rising across the U.S. as global pollution reaches dangerous levels

Other dangerous pollutants include gases like nitrogen dioxide or sulfur dioxide, which are also produced from burning fuels, said Anumita Roychowdhury, an air pollution expert at the Center for Science and Environment in New Delhi. While air quality varies dramatically from place to place and day to day, nearly the entire world — about 99% of the global population — is exposed to air at some point that does not meet the strict standards set by the World Health Organization. Polluted air, laden with noxious gasses or tiny, invisible particles that burrow into human bodies, kills 7 million people prematurely every year, the U.N. health agency estimates. And for the millions living in some of the world’s smoggiest cities — many of them in Asia like New Delhi, Dhaka, Bangkok, and Jakarta — bad air might seem inescapable. But there are things that people can do, starting with understanding that the air is not only polluted when it looks smoggy, said Tanushree Ganguly of the Energy Policy Institute of Chicago in India. “Blue skies can’t guarantee you clean air,” she said. WHAT ARE THE MOST DANGEROUS KINDS OF AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES? Air pollutants often come from people burning things: Fuels such as coal, natural gas, diesel and gasoline for electricity and transportation; crops or trees for agricultural purposes; or as a result of wildfires. Fine, inhalable particles, known as particulate matter, are among the most dangerous. The tiniest of these — known as PM 2.5 because they are less than 2.5 microns in diameter — can get deep into human lungs and are mostly created by burning fuels. Coarser particles, known as PM 10, are linked to agriculture, roadways, mining or the wind blowing eroded dust, according to the WHO. Other dangerous pollutants include gases like nitrogen dioxide or sulfur dioxide, which are also produced from burning fuels, said Anumita Roychowdhury, an air pollution expert at the Center for Science and Environment in New Delhi. The sources and intensity of air pollution varies in different cities and seasons. For instance, old motorbikes and industrial boilers are major contributors to bad air in Indonesian capital Jakarta while burning of agricultural waste is a major reason for air pollution spikes in cities in Thailand and India. Brick kilns that burn coal adds to pollution in Dhaka, Bangladesh’s capital. And seasonal forest fires cause problems in Brazil and North America. WHAT HEALTH PROBLEMS CAN AIR POLLUTION CAUSE? Air pollution is the second-largest risk factor for early death globally, behind high blood pressure, according to a recent report by the Health Effects Institute. Short-term exposure can trigger asthma attacks and increase the risk of heart attacks and stroke, especially in the elderly or people with medical problems. Long-term exposure can cause serious heart and lung problems that can lead to death, including heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung infections. A recent analysis by the U.N. children’s agency found that more than 500 million children in East Asia and Pacific countries breathe unhealthy air and the pollution is linked to the deaths of 100 children under 5 every day. June Kunugi, UNICEF Regional Director for East Asia, said the polluted air compromises growth, harms lungs and impacts cognitive abilities. “Every breath matters, but for too many children every breath can bring harm,” she said. WHAT IS THE BEST WAY TO TELL IF AIR IS SAFE? Over 6,000 cities in 117 countries now monitor air quality, and many weather mobile apps include air quality information. But trying to gauge how bad the air is by looking at these numbers can be confusing. To help people understand air quality levels more easily, many countries have adopted an air quality index or AQI — a numerical scale where larger numbers mean worse air. They are also often assigned different colors to show whether the air is clean or not. But different countries have different air quality standards. For instance, India’s daily PM 2.5 limit is more than 1.5 times higher than that of Thailand and 4 times higher than WHO standards. This means that countries calculate AQIs differently and the numbers aren’t comparable. This is also why sometimes AQI scores by private companies using stricter standards may be different from those calculated by national regulators. WHAT ARE THE BEST WAYS TO PROTECT YOURSELF FROM AIR POLLUTION? The goal, of course, is to limit exposure when air quality is bad, by staying inside or wearing a mask. Staying inside however, is not always possible, especially for people who must live or work outside, noted Danny Djarum, an air quality researcher at the World Resources Institute, an environmental advocacy group. “They can’t really afford not going out,” he said. Pakaphol Asavakomolnant, an office worker in Bangkok, said that he wears a mask every day and avoids riding to work on a motorbike. “I get a sore throat when I come to work in the morning and I forget to wear a mask,” he said. People also need to be aware of indoor air pollution which can often be caused by common household activities like cooking or even burning an incense stick. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS — AND LIMITATIONS — OF AIR PURIFIERS? Air purifiers can help reduce indoor air pollution, but they have their limitations. They work by pulling air from a room, pushing it through a filter that traps pollutants before circulating it back. But they are are most effective when used in small spaces and when people are nearby. Air purifiers can only clean a certain amount of air, said Rajasekhar Balasubramanian, who studies urban air quality at the National University of Singapore. “If we have a tiny air purifier in a large room, it won’t be effective,” he said. Air purifiers are also too expensive for people in many developing countries. “The majority of people who are affected by air pollution can’t really afford air purifiers,” said WRI’s Djarum.

Trade tensions threaten green goals, scholars warn

As nations combat climate change, a surge in trade disputes is creating a dangerous rift between climate ambitions and international trade, potentially slowing a global green transition and raising costs, experts caution. It comes as the market for environmental goods continues to boom. In 2024, exports in this sector hit $2 trillion, making up 14 percent of globally manufactured goods, according to a report by the UN Trade and Development. Between 2013 and 2022, trade in solar energy products soared by 56 percent and wind generation goods grew by 39 percent, outpacing the 23 percent growth of overall industrial goods, the report found. This rapid expansion, however, has clashed with tensions between trade and climate policies. Disputes increasingly center on carbon offsets, green subsidies, and regulations, with major economies implementing unilateral measures viewed by experts as protectionism disguised as climate action. In the United States, the Inflation Reduction Act, with its substantial subsidies for domestic clean energy production, has sparked formal disputes at the World Trade Organization from the European Union and others alleging unfair competition. Similarly, the EU's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism has long faced resistance from developing nations. The Indian-based Centre for Science and Environment, for example, warns that the policy risks shifting decarbonization costs onto emerging economies. Another focal point of tension is the West's targeting of China's green industries, particularly electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies, over accusations of "unfair subsidies". The EU began imposing tariffs on Chinese EVs in late 2024. Scholars argue these accusations often misrepresent China's industrial policy. "If you study the so-called subsidies to Chinese green industries cited by many Western countries, they are not traditional trade subsidies. They often represent government-funded R&D as part of a coherent industrial policy," said Sun Yixian, an associate professor of international development at the University of Bath. "Many Western countries are now learning from this model, which has created a virtuous cycle supporting green industrial development. "The subsidy narrative is largely used by these countries to exert pressure in trade disputes with China and to justify some of their protectionist policies," he said. Zhongxiang Zhang, founding dean of the Ma Yinchu School of Economics at Tianjin University, described the EU's anti-subsidy tariffs as a "preemptive move" to counter China's competitive advantage rather than a remedy for proven damage. He pointed out that China's rise in the EV sector has broken the long-standing technological dominance of developed nations. Developed countries are struggling to transition from internal combustion engines and compete with Chinese EV makers, according to Zhang. As a result, he said, they have adopted such measures to buy time. Trade tensions became one of the key topics at last year's COP30 in response to the growing threat it poses to combating climate change. The conference's key outcome, the Global Mutirao decision, explicitly called for dialogue on trade and climate. It reaffirmed the need for international cooperation in promoting an open economic system supporting climate action and that climate measures, including unilateral ones, should not constitute arbitrary discrimination or trade restrictions disguised as regulations. A significant institutional step was the launch of the Integrated Forum on Climate Change and Trade by Brazil. This platform aims to foster trust and bridge climate and trade, operating independently of both the WTO and UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, or UNFCCC. "This is the first time the issue of unilateral measures has entered a formal dialogue mechanism under the UNFCCC framework, opening a new channel for discussing climate and trade issues," said Zhang Jian, vice-president of the Institute of Climate Change and Sustainable Development at Tsinghua University. While its current scope and legal force are limited, Zhang argued that this progress lays crucial groundwork for future institutional arrangements. "The scaled deployment of green technologies relies on an open, stable, and predictable international cooperation environment," Zhang said. "Over-reliance on unilateral measures can easily trigger trade frictions, raise transition costs and weaken investor confidence, ultimately affecting the efficiency of global emissions reduction efforts." Dong Yifan, an associate research fellow at the Institute of Country and Regional Studies at the Beijing Language and Culture University, added that unilateral measures can slow each countries' respective green transition and erode global trust, particularly in the Global South. "The current pace of transition is insufficient to tackle climate change. This is fundamentally a problem of cost and political will that requires the whole world to work together to make the pie bigger," he said. "For green trade, we should refocus the discussion on the fundamental goal of reducing carbon emissions," urged Dong. "We need to resolve misunderstandings through international cooperation and consultation. Establishing robust mechanisms based on a rules-based framework would benefit both developed and developing countries." Sun from the University of Bath pointed out that trade can be a double-edged sword for the green transition. "While it can accelerate implementation, as seen with falling global renewable prices driven by Chinese innovation, it also creates winners and perceived losers. For the US and EU, China's rapid development in clean energy has triggered competitive anxieties," he observed. Therefore, the key to driving global transformation lies not in raising barriers, but in finding mutually beneficial solutions, he said.

Delhi’s EV retrofit push: How converting old cars to electric works, and why it may be expensive

As the national capital continues to battle foul air, the Delhi government had announced plans last week to incentivise the retrofitting of old petrol and diesel cars and their conversion into electric vehicles (EVs) under its new EV policy. “Under this proposal, the government is planning to provide an incentive of Rs 50,000 for the first 1,000 old vehicles retrofitted into EVs. The plan is under consideration, and a final decision will be taken after Cabinet approval,” an official had said. While retrofitting your petrol and diesel vehicle offers benefits ranging from lower maintenance costs to more regulatory compliance, it is not without its own challenges. According to experts, the nascent market, high GST rates on retrofit kits, and reduced financial benefit for owners in the long run are some key deterrents. As per a research note from JMK Research and Analytics, an energy consultancy, a vehicle owner could incur 60-70% of the cost of a newly purchased EV just to convert their Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicle to electric, making the option to retrofit less financially viable for many. What is EV retrofitting? EV retrofitting refers to the process of converting existing petrol or diesel vehicles into electric vehicles. During retrofitting, the fuel tank, engine, fuel pipes, exhaust system, and engine accessories are replaced with a battery, controller, and motor. How much does it cost to get your vehicle retrofitted? The market for retrofitting, especially for personal two- and four-wheelers, is at a very nascent stage. It comprises mostly small companies and startups, many of which have not yet started commercial sales. Tadpole Projects, a company incubated at and based out of IIT Delhi, promises to retrofit your Gypsy for Rs 6.5 lakh. It has a running cost of Rs 1 per km and offers a range of 200 km on a single charge, with a warranty of 1 lakh km. For a Maruti Suzuki Swift Dzire, the estimated cost of conversion is Rs 6-7 lakh, with a range of 300 km on a full charge. Tadpole will start retail conversions in the next couple of months, according to founder Jawaad Khan. The company also plans to offer a Battery-as-a-Service (BaaS) model, which it claims will have a much lower upfront cost. Folks Motor, another company in this space, promises to add an electric battery to your petrol or diesel vehicle and convert it into a hybrid electric vehicle. Once launched, it will retrofit your Dzire for around Rs 2.5 lakh, Brezza for Rs 3 lakh, and Ertiga for Rs 3.5 lakh. The company claims a 40-60% increase in mileage and a 30-50% decrease in running costs. Should you get your two-wheeler or car retrofitted? While advocates for retrofitting argue that it could deliver lower maintenance costs and help owners avoid regulatory hassles, many critics contend that the high costs of conversion make it a financially burdensome process for individual buyers. According to Khan, driving EVs will also help you avoid the hassles of compliance with the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) regulations, and other requirements. “While retrofitting ICE vehicles to EVs offers benefits like lower upfront costs and extended vehicle lifespan, it often costs 60-70% of a new EV due to the high price of batteries, which comprise around 50% of a new EV’s cost,” a research note from JMK Research and Analytics states. “When factoring in assembly, disassembly, and other components, the price difference with new EVs is minimal, making retrofitting less attractive for individual buyers. Additionally, retrofitted vehicles lack warranties and often show signs of wear, making them a less appealing option for individual consumers,” it adds, noting that retrofitting is particularly advantageous for commercial and institutional buyers who benefit from economies of scale. A total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis of retrofitted EVs over a 10-year period by JMK Research and Analytics shows only a slight financial benefit for retrofitted four-wheelers. While a retrofitted EV has the lowest TCO at Rs 6.32 per km, the TCO for a new EV is Rs 7.07 per km and for a new ICE vehicle is Rs 7.197 per km. For two-wheelers, the TCO for retrofitted EVs is Rs 1.6 per km compared to Rs 2.36 per km for a new EV. Furthermore, it is not yet clear from real-world evidence the extent to which the lifespan of vehicles can be extended and the durability of real-world performance, a CSE report on retrofitting notes. Moushumi Mohanty, Head of Electric Mobility at Delhi-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a strong critic of retrofitting of personal vehicles. According to Mohanty, retrofitting increases a vehicle’s lifespan by only 4-6 years, during which the battery will also experience reduced performance owing to the combination of the weight of the vehicle and degrading battery. Further, she adds that since the battery has to meet AIS 156 safety standards, the retrofitting process will neither be inexpensive nor easy. Why hasn’t retrofitting picked up pace? Retrofit kits are costly, which is one reason retrofitting saw a lukewarm response the last time it was included in Delhi’s EV policy. One factor behind the high costs is that each model requires a different conversion kit. Each conversion kit must also be approved by a competent authority such as the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) or the International Centre for Automotive Technology (ICAT). Adding to the costs are the high GST rates imposed on retrofit kits. Each component of the kit is taxed at 18%, while a new EV benefits from just a 5% GST rate.

Own an old car in Delhi? Here’s how to convert it to electric — and what it may cost you

As the national capital continues to battle foul air, the Delhi government had announced plans last week to incentivise the retrofitting of old petrol and diesel cars and their conversion into electric vehicles (EVs) under its new EV policy. “Under this proposal, the government is planning to provide an incentive of Rs 50,000 for the first 1,000 old vehicles retrofitted into EVs. The plan is under consideration, and a final decision will be taken after Cabinet approval,” an official had said. While retrofitting your petrol and diesel vehicle offers benefits ranging from lower maintenance costs to more regulatory compliance, it is not without its own challenges. According to experts, the nascent market, high GST rates on retrofit kits, and reduced financial benefit for owners in the long run are some key deterrents. As per a research note from JMK Research and Analytics, an energy consultancy, a vehicle owner could incur 60-70% of the cost of a newly purchased EV just to convert their Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicle to electric, making the option to retrofit less financially viable for many. What is EV retrofitting? EV retrofitting refers to the process of converting existing petrol or diesel vehicles into electric vehicles. During retrofitting, the fuel tank, engine, fuel pipes, exhaust system, and engine accessories are replaced with a battery, controller, and motor. How much does it cost to get your vehicle retrofitted? The market for retrofitting, especially for personal two- and four-wheelers, is at a very nascent stage. It comprises mostly small companies and startups, many of which have not yet started commercial sales. Tadpole Projects, a company incubated at and based out of IIT Delhi, promises to retrofit your Gypsy for Rs 6.5 lakh. It has a running cost of Rs 1 per km and offers a range of 200 km on a single charge, with a warranty of 1 lakh km. For a Maruti Suzuki Swift Dzire, the estimated cost of conversion is Rs 6-7 lakh, with a range of 300 km on a full charge. Tadpole will start retail conversions in the next couple of months, according to founder Jawaad Khan. The company also plans to offer a Battery-as-a-Service (BaaS) model, which it claims will have a much lower upfront cost. Folks Motor, another company in this space, promises to add an electric battery to your petrol or diesel vehicle and convert it into a hybrid electric vehicle. Once launched, it will retrofit your Dzire for around Rs 2.5 lakh, Brezza for Rs 3 lakh, and Ertiga for Rs 3.5 lakh. The company claims a 40-60% increase in mileage and a 30-50% decrease in running costs. Should you get your two-wheeler or car retrofitted? While advocates for retrofitting argue that it could deliver lower maintenance costs and help owners avoid regulatory hassles, many critics contend that the high costs of conversion make it a financially burdensome process for individual buyers. According to Khan, driving EVs will also help you avoid the hassles of compliance with the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV) regulations, and other requirements. “While retrofitting ICE vehicles to EVs offers benefits like lower upfront costs and extended vehicle lifespan, it often costs 60-70% of a new EV due to the high price of batteries, which comprise around 50% of a new EV’s cost,” a research note from JMK Research and Analytics states. “When factoring in assembly, disassembly, and other components, the price difference with new EVs is minimal, making retrofitting less attractive for individual buyers. Additionally, retrofitted vehicles lack warranties and often show signs of wear, making them a less appealing option for individual consumers,” it adds, noting that retrofitting is particularly advantageous for commercial and institutional buyers who benefit from economies of scale. A total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis of retrofitted EVs over a 10-year period by JMK Research and Analytics shows only a slight financial benefit for retrofitted four-wheelers. While a retrofitted EV has the lowest TCO at Rs 6.32 per km, the TCO for a new EV is Rs 7.07 per km and for a new ICE vehicle is Rs 7.197 per km. For two-wheelers, the TCO for retrofitted EVs is Rs 1.6 per km compared to Rs 2.36 per km for a new EV. Furthermore, it is not yet clear from real-world evidence the extent to which the lifespan of vehicles can be extended and the durability of real-world performance, a CSE report on retrofitting notes. Moushumi Mohanty, Head of Electric Mobility at Delhi-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a strong critic of retrofitting of personal vehicles.

Monetary Cost of Air Pollution’s Health Impacts Dropped from EPA Assessments

“This sets a dangerous global precedent that could weaken the adoption of stronger environmental protections. It is crucial that this shift does not influence or undermine the air quality and emission standards currently taking shape across the Global South,” Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director, at the Centre for Science and Environment in New Delhi, told Health Policy Watch.

Satellite images show how cities are heating up

In Hyderabad, the urban heat island phenomenon is stronger at night. The city is 0.7°C cooler than its peripheries and peri urban areas during the day and 1.9°C warmer at night, according to a 2024 review by the Centre for Science and Environment. Between 2003 and 2020, India's cities warmed at 0.53°C per decade –double the rate of the rest of the country. Satellite imagery reveals this transformation, documenting how green turned to grey, water bodies vanished, and land surface temperatures soared – in some cases by as much as 15°C in three decades. This was particularly pronounced in the northwestern, northeastern and southern regions. We looked at studies that analysed data from nine cities spanning up to five decades. The images reveal three patterns: extreme sprawl that replaced natural landscapes with concrete, the paradox of the city that added trees but still got hotter, and the systematic loss of water bodies that once cooled urban environments. As cities turn into heat islands, India’s urban population exposed to high temperatures is estimated to rise eightfold by 2050, as IndiaSpend reported in the first part of this series. Vulnerable communities, unable to afford cooling, will suffer the most. “This inevitable development could exacerbate the Urban Heat Island crisis our cities are already facing and further reduce the quality of living," says Abhiyant Tiwari, climate resilience lead and health consultant at the Natural Resources Defense Council. Every city shows increased built-up area and rising land surface temperatures. But the details vary. Bengaluru experienced the most extreme sprawl and temperature rise. Hyderabad presents a paradox – green cover increased 197%, yet LST rose 7.55°C. These variations reflect different urbanisation drivers: Bengaluru's tech boom, Hyderabad's IT and pharmaceuticals, Patna's administrative role, Chennai's haphazard expansion. Extreme sprawl In Bengaluru, built-up area rose ten-fold from about 6,000 hectare in 1973 to 64,000 hectare in 2023, accompanied by a fall in area of vegetation cover (88%) and water bodies (79%) from 69,000 hectare to 9,900 hectare, researchers at the Indian Institute of Science have found. Just in the last three decades, this urban sprawl has caused the overall average LST in Bengaluru to rise by 15.13°C, according to a study by researchers at the city’s Christ University and Qatar University. From a climate and public health standpoint, this increase would be classified as “severe and hazardous”, says Shikha Patel, lead author and research assistant at the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning in Qatar University. This rate of increase is not acceptable, she adds, and indicates an urgent need for cooling strategies. Patel points to the rapid population growth, economic development, and the city's emergence as a major IT and industrial centre as primary factors. The most intense phase of urban sprawl and land use change, as evidenced by satellite images, occurred after the early 2000s leading to the creation of urban heat islands, she adds.

Gian Jyoti Global School selected for ‘National Green School Award'

Gian Jyoti Global School, Phase 2, Mohali, has achieved a significant milestone in the field of environmental conservation by being selected for the prestigious ‘National Green School Award’. Out of the 23 schools selected for the honour from the Mohali district, Gian Jyoti Global School is the only private school to earn the distinction, while all others are government institutions. The award ceremony is scheduled to take place in New Delhi on January 30. This honour recognises schools that demonstrate leadership in environmental sustainability, conservation of natural resources, efficient waste management, and the implementation of eco-friendly practices on their campus. The selection was based on a rigorous ‘Green School Audit’ conducted under the Environment Education Programme of the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. The process was supported by the Punjab State Council for Science and Technology (PSCST) and the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. Sharing her joy, Ranjeet Bedi, Director-Principal of Gian Jyoti Global School, said: “Care for nature shapes our values and vision. This selection reflects our unwavering commitment to providing education that builds respect for the environment and fosters the spirit of responsible citizenship among students.”

स्मृति शेष: भारत को पर्यावरणीय विवेक देने वाले वैज्ञानिक थे माधव गाडगिल

डॉ. गाडगिल से मेरी व्यक्तिगत मुलाकातें सीमित रहीं—एक आमने-सामने की भेंट और एक संक्षिप्त फोन बातचीत। इसके बावजूद, मुझे हमेशा ऐसा लगा कि मैं उन्हें अच्छी तरह जानता हूं। इसका कारण वे विचार थे, जो उनके लेखन में झलकते थे, और वे संस्थान थे, जिन्हें उन्होंने गढ़ा और पोषित किया। मेरे आसपास के कई पर्यावरणवादियों में वे एक अत्यंत प्रभावशाली व्यक्तित्व के रूप में उपस्थित थे। वेस्टर्न घाट्स रिपोर्ट के प्रकाशन के कुछ समय बाद, सेंटर फॉर साइंस एंड एनवायरनमेंट (CSE) में उनसे मेरी मुलाकात हुई। हमने रिपोर्ट के कुछ पहलुओं की आलोचना की थी, और उसी पर चर्चा करने के लिए वे आए थे। उस बातचीत में मुझे न केवल उनकी तीक्ष्ण बुद्धि का अनुभव हुआ, बल्कि यह भी स्पष्ट हुआ कि यह विषय उनके लिए कितना व्यक्तिगत था। वेस्टर्न घाट्स उनके लिए मात्र एक भौगोलिक क्षेत्र नहीं था; वह एक जीवित पारिस्थितिक इकाई थी, जिसके क्षरण को रोकना वे अपनी नैतिक जिम्मेदारी मानते थे।

Replicating ‘Operation Flood’ for Bioenergy

India possesses a vast and diverse biomass base that can support a Distributed CBG Production Model. According to the Centre for Science and Environment, India’s feedstock availability comprises 190 million tonnes (mt) of animal and poultry waste, 150 mt of agricultural residue, 62 mt of municipal solid waste (MSW), 50 mt of biomass from sewage treatment plants, and 20 mt of press mud. This biomass potential can support an estimated CBG production capacity of 62 million tonnes per annum, with animal and poultry waste alone accounting for 41 per cent and surplus agri-residues for 32 per cent. While around 108 CBG plants have been commissioned so far, the growth trajectory remains slow, raising concerns and signaling the need for a shift in approach.

Done and not dusted: Few violators paying fine for flouting dust norms

While Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) claims to be enforcing multiple measures to curb dust pollution and penalise violators, the low recovery of fines compared to the number of challans issued raises questions about the effectiveness of its enforcement drive. The civic body maintains that its campaigns aim to bring behavioural change rather than merely levy penalties. Experts, however, argue that compliance with norms is essential if air quality has to improve. Sources said, between Sept 1 and Dec 31, 2025, MCD issued 2,122 challans for dust violations at construction sites, totaling Rs 3.6 crore, but actual recoveries were limited to Rs 19.5 lakh. MCD issues challans under National Green Tribunal (NGT) norms and solid waste management (SWM) rules, with fines such as Rs 5,000 for open burning of waste. Under Sections 3, 6, and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, the commissioner can impose penalties, levy spot fines, and initiate prosecution for non-payment. These powers are designed to enforce compliance effectively. In Dec, challans were issued to 746 under-construction sites measuring less than 500 sq metres for violating dust mitigation norms or failing to register on the designated portal. Penalties imposed amounted to Rs 99.4 lakh, but recoveries stood at just Rs 9 lakh, even though civic teams inspected 5,340 sites during the month. Enforcement for larger projects was similarly weak. Of 1,629 sites over 500 sq metres, challans were issued to only 42 buildings. Penalties imposed totalled Rs 30 lakh, but just Rs 1 lakh was recovered, sources added. From April to Dec 2025, the building department issued 2,920 challans amounting to Rs 4.8 crore, with only Rs 28.1 lakh collected. The highest number of challans—928—was issued in Nov (Rs 1.4 crore in penalties), followed by 788 in Dec (Rs 1.3 crore) and 406 in Oct, as pollution levels rose post-Diwali. An MCD official said zonal teams conduct inspections, issue challans and send reminders. "Challans issued on the spot for construction and waste management are usually collected, as they involve smaller amounts. In other categories, recovery is slower due to limited staff. However, most violators take precautions after receiving a challan, which is the main objective," the official said. POS machines have also been provided to staff for on-the-spot fines, particularly for sanitation violations. Experts stress that fines alone cannot ensure compliance. Anumita Roychowdhury, executive director (Research and Advocacy), Centre for Science and Environment, said: "While levying fines may not be the ultimate objective of authorities, ensuring compliance with norms is essential to achieve results. Even after imposing penalties, if no visible changes occur on the ground, enforcement fails its purpose." Officials noted that under Sections 154 and 155 of the Delhi Municipal Corporation Act, 1957, arrears can be attached or unpaid challans recovered, and notices issued under building bylaws, though the process is time-consuming. MCD is reportedly following up pending cases with the NGT and sub-divisional magistrates, but progress remains slow. In May 2024, Delhi High Court directed additional chief metropolitan magistrate courts in each district to handle cases under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, including SWM bylaw violations.

Satellite Images Show How Cities Are Heating Up

Chennai: Between 2003 and 2020, India's cities warmed at 0.53°C per decade—double the rate of the rest of the country. Satellite imagery reveals this transformation, documenting how green turned to grey, water bodies vanished, and land surface temperatures soared—in some cases by as much as 15°C in three decades. This was particularly pronounced in the northwestern, northeastern and southern regions. We looked at studies that analysed data from nine cities spanning up to five decades. The images reveal three patterns: extreme sprawl that replaced natural landscapes with concrete, the paradox of the city that added trees but still got hotter, and the systematic loss of water bodies that once cooled urban environments. As cities turn into heat islands, India’s urban population exposed to high temperatures is estimated to rise eightfold by 2050, as IndiaSpend reported in the first part of this series. Vulnerable communities, unable to afford cooling, will suffer the most. “This inevitable development could exacerbate the Urban Heat Island crisis our cities are already facing and further reduce the quality of living," says Abhiyant Tiwari, climate resilience lead and health consultant at the Natural Resources Defense Council. Every city shows increased built-up area and rising land surface temperatures. But the details vary. Bengaluru experienced the most extreme sprawl and temperature rise. Hyderabad presents a paradox—green cover increased 197%, yet LST rose 7.55°C. These variations reflect different urbanisation drivers: Bengaluru's tech boom, Hyderabad's IT and pharmaceuticals, Patna's administrative role, Chennai's haphazard expansion. Extreme sprawl In Bengaluru, built-up area rose ten-fold from about 6,000 hectare in 1973 to 64,000 hectare in 2023, accompanied by a fall in area of vegetation cover (88%) and water bodies (79%) from 69,000 hectare to 9,900 hectare, researchers at the Indian Institute of Science have found. Just in the last three decades, this urban sprawl has caused the overall average LST in Bengaluru to rise by 15.13°C, according to a study by researchers at the city’s Christ University and Qatar University. From a climate and public health standpoint, this increase would be classified as “severe and hazardous”, says Shikha Patel, lead author and research assistant at the Department of Architecture and Urban Planning in Qatar University. This rate of increase is not acceptable, she adds, and indicates an urgent need for cooling strategies. Patel points to the rapid population growth, economic development, and the city's emergence as a major IT and industrial centre as primary factors. The most intense phase of urban sprawl and land use change, as evidenced by satellite images, occurred after the early 2000s leading to the creation of urban heat islands, she adds. In the case of Vijayawada, which saw a 15.84°C rise in LST between 2001 and 2023, the built-up area grew 58%, while the extent of water bodies fell 38% and vegetation declined 42%. “Vijayawada follows a fan-shaped, unidirectional growth trajectory. Bounded by hills to the east and west and the Krishna river to the south, the city’s expansion has been predominantly oriented towards the northeast,” explains V. Vinoj, associate professor at the School of Earth, Ocean and Climate Sciences, IIT Bhubaneswar. Its location as a transportation hub, and recently, the proximity to the new state capital Amaravati contributed to rapid urban growth. “The older core city region situated near the river exhibits the highest land surface temperatures (LST), highlighting the urban heat concentration in this area,” he adds. In Patna, which saw a 4.5°C rise in LST, the built-up area doubled between 1988 and 2022—most of it after 2005. During this period, the extent of water bodies reduced by 34% and vegetation by 84%. The city demonstrates a concentric growth model, marked by the city’s radial outward expansion, Vinoj says. Patna functions as the administrative hub while also serving as a major hub for healthcare and education. This role, coupled with significant rural-to-urban migration, continues to shape the city’s urbanisation dynamics, he explains. Green cover paradox In Hyderabad, the urban heat island phenomenon is stronger at night. The city is 0.7°C cooler than its peripheries and peri urban areas during the day and 1.9°C warmer at night, according to a 2024 review by the Centre for Science and Environment. In two decades to 2023, its built-up area doubled, but green cover also rose from 9% to 27%. This in turn has moderated daytime temperatures, the review says, but widespread concretisation still reduces thermal comfort at night. Experts say that the IT boom and the bio-pharmaceuticals industry in Hyderabad have been the main reasons for the increase in population. "Green cover definitely has increased in Hyderabad due to consistent efforts through the Haritha Haram programme. But this does not offset the UHI crisis or significantly reduce temperatures," says D. Sabarinath, a geographer and urban researcher. "This is largely because forest cover is lost due to rapid urbanisation and this can't be replaced by scattered planting without planning. For example, they grow eucalyptus trees because they mature fast but the capability of evapotranspiration for this species is low. So data shows tree cover has increased but on ground, unscientific tree planting can reduce aquifer levels and cause more damage," he adds.